The History of Corn From Ancient Mesoamerica to Today

by Edwin Torres, age 13

Corn is an ancient grain with an interesting history that most people have not heard about. Originating in Mesoamerica, specifically Mexico, corn is now widely enjoyed and produced across the world. However, only 40 percent of corn that is grown is consumed by people, while the remaining 60 percent is used as animal feed.

Modern corn as we know it did not exist 10,000 years ago. Instead, its ancestor was a wild grass called teosinte. Teosinte did not look like the corn we know today, but farmers in Mexico began the process of domestication around 9,000 years ago by selecting kernels to plant. While the history of corn is still debated, there is evidence showing that the domestication of corn began in the South Central region of Mexico.

For centuries, corn has been valued as an important crop for people. In fact, corn was so important that indigenous Mesoamericans even worshipped it and believed that it was a gift from the gods. One reason why corn was appreciated so much was that the crop was relatively easy to grow. This made corn an amazing crop for feeding the population and provided the leaders of indigenous civilizations with more power. [Read More]

Vinnie Ream Hoxie: The Woman Who Sculpted Lincoln

by Allison Torres, age 15

The famous statue of Abraham Lincoln in Washington D.C. created by Vinnie Ream proved to society that women could create valuable art.

Ream was born in 1847 in Madison, Wisconsin, where she lived for ten years. Her family moved to Missouri, but later relocated to Washington D.C. during the Civil War. In 1863, Ream had a chance to visit Clark Mills’s studios and see multiple sculptures. Inspired by what she saw, she began sculpting. Ream recalled, “I felt at once that I, too, could model and, taking the clay, in a few hours I produced a medallion of an Indian chief’s head.”

She began sculpting busts of prominent men, including General George Armstrong Custer, Congressman Thaddeus Stevens, and New York editor Horace Greeley. Eventually, her friends helped arrange for her to sculpt a bust of President Lincoln. [Read More]

Helen Keller Overcoming Deafness and Blindness to Inspire the World

by Abigail Gezae, age 12

Helen Keller became blind and deaf at the young age of 19 months due to an illness. She was born on a small farm in Tuscumbia, Alabama. Arthur Keller was Helen’s father, and his young second wife, Kate Adams, was her mother.

At six months of age, Helen was advanced in her learning and was beginning to speak. Helen was doing very well until she became sick with a mysterious illness, which the doctors thought was German measles. Today, doctors believe Helen’s childhood illness was likely scarlet fever or meningitis. This illness caused Helen to lose her sense of sight and hearing. Over time, Helen forgot her memories of sight and sound, growing used to silence and darkness. Her family developed a way to communicate with her, and Helen created more than 50 signs to express her feelings and frustrations, which were growing.

At the age of seven, Helen was sent to the Perkins Institute for the Blind in Boston, Massachusetts, where she met a young teacher named Anne Mansfield Sullivan. Anne was later sent to work with Helen at her home. Helen’s initial frustrations and attitudes made her a difficult student, but Anne was persistent. After setting some boundaries, they were able to work together. Anne began teaching Helen the names of objects by spelling them out. Anne would write letters on Helen’s palm to connect these patterns with the objects they described. When Anne spelled the word “water,” Helen experienced a breakthrough, recalling her early memories of language, which helped her develop her communication skills. [Read More]

How Protests Led to the Bombing of UW's Sterling Hall

by Siheon Park, age 11

During the 1960s, many University of Wisconsin-Madison students were protesting the Vietnam War. Police broke up a student protest by using mace and clubs. The protest was about the Dow Chemical Company that produced a deadly chemical called Napalm for the U.S. military, but later on, it would lead to one of the most mysterious cases of domestic terrorism in Wisconsin history.

On Aug, 24, 1970, a group of men bombed Sterling Hall of UW-Madison, which was home to the Army Math Research Center, killing physicist Robert Fassnacht, and injuring four other researchers. The bombers were Karl and Dwight Armstrong, Leo Burt, and David Fine. The called themselves “The New Years Gang”.

The bombing of Sterling Hall wasn’t their only attack. Earlier in the year on January 1st, 1970, Karl and Dwight Armstrong attempted to bomb the Badger Army Ammunition Plant in Baraboo, but the bomb failed to go off. Later on, they were involved in bombing the ROTC offices and US draft board in the spring. [Read More]

The True Story of Vikings Beyond Raiding and Warfare

by Haliah Berkowitz, age 13

When people hear of Vikings, they often think of mass murderers, killers, and savages. In reality, Vikings were peaceful people much of the time. They valued protection and self-preservation, and they fought only when necessary. They also pursued various hobbies, crafted stunning boats, and settled in some of the most beautiful lands we cherish today.

The Viking Age lasted from around 800 to 1050 AD. Their homeland was primarily Scandinavia, including modern-day Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, but they also traveled to and settled in other parts of Europe. While we often group Vikings by their homelands—Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish—they shared a common culture and often moved between these regions.

In most historical depictions, Vikings are shown as ruthless raiders. While this is partially true, they also enjoyed peaceful activities like farming, fishing, and boatbuilding. They were master boatbuilders, known especially for their longships, which were designed for speed and easy navigation. These ships were double-ended, allowing for quick reversals and greater efficiency in difficult weather conditions, such as ice storms or downpours. [Read More]

The WWII Japanese Pilot Who Attacked Oregon

by Max Moreno, age 12

Nobuo Fujita was a Japanese naval aviator who bombed forests in Oregon with the goal of setting back the U.S. by burning valuable timber and forcing the country to divert military resources to fight fires. He was also the first Axis pilot to bomb the contiguous U.S.

It all started on April 18, 1942, when the U.S. launched the Doolittle Raid. The attack targeted several cities in Japan in retaliation for Pearl Harbor. The raid was named after the lead pilot, Lieutenant Colonel James H. Doolittle. The mission involved 16 B-25 Mitchell bomber planes that took off from the USS Hornet, located about 650 miles off the coast of Japan. The bombers attacked Tokyo, Kobe, Nagoya, and Yokohama, but because of the long distances involved, most of them ran out of fuel and had to either crash-land in China or ditch in the sea. Although the raid caused little physical damage, it significantly boosted U.S. morale. [Read More]

What Happened to the Aral Sea?

by Dulce Vazquez, age 15

The Aral Sea was once the fourth-largest lake in the world but is now practically gone. This sea is located in Central Asia, between southern Kazakhstan and northern Uzbekistan.

The Aral Sea is actually a saltwater lake, as it has no outlet to the ocean. It was formed by water flowing from various rivers and glacial melt. As one of the largest lakes, the Aral provided water and fish, which were crucial to the region. It supported farming, the fishing industry, and even tourism in the area, attracting people from surrounding regions.

However, the Soviet Union initiated a major water diversion project in the 1960s to irrigate cotton fields. Water from the rivers feeding the Aral Sea had been diverted for irrigation by the Soviet Union since the 1920s, but the 1960s saw the beginning of large-scale redirection. The Aral Sea, once deep blue and teeming with fish, had shrunk to half its original size by the end of the 1960s. The decline continued, and by 1987, the lake split into the Northern Aral Sea in Kazakhstan and the Southern Aral Sea in Uzbekistan. [Read More]

Amelia Earhart Breaking Barriers in Aviation History

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

Amelia Earhart was the first female pilot to fly alone on transatlantic and transpacific flights. She is also known as a pioneer for women aviators.

Amelia was born on July 24, 1897, in Atchison, Kansas. Amelia’s childhood was hard due to many problems. Her dad, Edwin, had alcoholism, and she and her sister, Meriel, lived with their grandparents for 12 years.

During World War I, Amelia went to Toronto with her sister. She got a job as a nursing assistant to care for hurt soldiers. After the war ended, she trained to become a doctor, but her passion was piloting. [Read More]

Madam C.J. Walker's Legacy in Beauty and Empowerment

by Moore Vang, age 15

A pioneer in African-American history, Madam C.J. Walker has had a lasting

impact on the beauty industry and African-American history in the U.S. during the late 1800s to early 1900s. She is most well known for creating hair products for Black women at a time when they did not have access to specific products for their hair. Walker created a successful business for herself and helped provide for others throughout her career.

Madam, born Sarah Breedlove, was born on Dec 23, 1867, in Delta, Louisiana. She was born free and grew up as a sharecropper alongside her family. Her parents died when she was young, so she lived with her older sister until she turned 14. She ran away and married a man named Moses McWilliams after her sister’s husband became too abusive towards her. Sarah gave birth before the age of 17 to her daughter Lelia who was her only child. Unexpectedly, Moses passed away only three years after Lelia’s birth, leaving Madam as a widowed mother. [Read More]

The Virgin Queen Who Defined England's Golden Age

by Siwoo Park, age 12

Queen Elizabeth I of Britain, also known as “The Virgin Queen,” was an impactful monarch who defeated the Spanish Armada, calmed theological conflicts, and used her power and status to help her people.

Elizabeth Tudor was born from a controversial marriage of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII on Sept. 7, 1533. Anne could only bear Elizabeth as Henry fell out of love with her. In 1535, Henry accused Anne of adultery, incest, and high treason, which led to her execution, two years after Elizabeth’s birth. Her step-brother Edward was born in a different marriage, and her ascension to the throne became risky as Edward was first in line to the throne. Her older Catholic step-sister, Mary I, disliked Elizabeth’s Protestant views.

Elizabeth was raised with tutors and private instructors during her childhood. She was a quick learner of language and the classics. She also excelled in horse riding, archery, dancing, and playing a keyboard instrument called virginals. [Read More]

Manitowoc's Submarines: Wisconsin's Key Contribution to Victory in WWII

by Max Moreno, age 11

A shipbuilding company in Wisconsin helped the U.S. defeat Japan in World War II. Charles C. West, the President of Manitowoc Shipbuilding Co., initially wanted to build destroyer ships under a Navy contract.

However, during the Great Depression, the Navy made their contracts unavailable due to the lack of funds. With the start of WWII, contracts became available again. West presented his idea of building destroyers to the Navy but was redirected by a Navy representative to build submarines instead. Despite their initial inexperience, West's 500 employees adapted to the challenge of building submarines. The shallow Manitowoc River made launching submarines difficult, but the company innovated a side-launch technique to fit the submarines in the narrow river. [Read More]

The Life of Catherine of Aragon

by Siwoo Park, age 12

Intelligent, stubborn, and wronged, Catherine of Aragon was Henry VIII's first wife and one of many influences that dramatically changed Henry's religious beliefs and perspective of marriage. She was an agent of both change and drama, as she was dragged into the matter of Henry VIII’s desires.

Catherine of Aragon was born on December 16, 1485, in Spain. She was the youngest daughter of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castille. As Isabella wished, all her children, including Catherine, were well-educated. Catherine studied Catholic literature to learn Latin and other modern languages.

When Catherine was a child, her parents wanted to ally with England, specifically Henry VII. Both monarchs arranged her marriage to the oldest son of Henry VII, Prince Arthur of Wales. In 1501, Catherine set sail to England alone at 15. [Read More]

The History Behind America's Iconic Monument

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

Mount Rushmore is a monument meant to represent democracy and memorialize U.S. Presidents who led the country at different times. The granite cliff, located in South Dakota, depicts former presidents: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln.

Initially, the designer and sculptor planned for the monument to include the leaders down to their waists, but that didn’t happen due to low funding, Gutzon Borglum’s death, and the onset of World War II. Instead, sculptors Gutzon Borglum and his son, Lincoln Borglum, focused on carving only the heads.

Borglum, born in Idaho in 1867, was a famous artist. Building Mount Rushmore was a dangerous job due to the height of the monument and the tools used. Borglum and Lincoln directed miners and masons, who ultimately used dynamite to remove large portions of rock. Despite the use of dynamite for the rough work, chisels were employed to carve the finer details of the presidents’ heads. [Read More]

The History and Meaning Behind Tarot Cards

by Marco Gonzales, age 9

Tarot is a special card deck used for fortune-telling, but that wasn’t always true. It originated in Italy during the 1440s, when a fifth suit of 21 cards called "trionfi" (triumphs) and a "fool" card were added to a typical four-suited pack of cards. Originally, tarot was used as a game called "tarocchi," not for divination.

The modern tarot deck is based on the Marseille Tarot, consisting of 78 cards split into two groups: the major and minor arcana. The major arcana has 22 cards known as trumps, while the minor arcana has 56 cards. A special card in the deck is the Fool, also known as "Il Matto" in Italian or "Le Mat" in French. [Read More]

The Life and Career of Harry Whitehorse

by Kaleab Afeworki, age 12

Harry Whitehorse was a famous artist born in Black River Falls, Wisconsin in 1927. He was born in a wigwam which is the Ho-Chunk’s traditional housing.

When Harry was young, he was a student at Tomah Indian Boarding School where teachers discovered his talent in oil painting and drawing. His skills and appreciation for art blossomed as he progressed in life.

When he served in the military for WWII, his love for art grew especially after visiting the great museums of the Orient and Europe. Artwork in these locations inspired Whitehorse to pursue a career as an artist. After the war, Whitehorse graduated from the Arthur Colt School of Fine Arts at UW-Madison where he studied oil painting. He also studied welding and metal fabrication from a local technical college. [Read More]

Anne Frank’s Story and the Diary that Survived the Holocaust

by Ayelen Flores Ruiz, age 14

Anne Frank is known for her famous diaries from the Holocaust which are filled with many emotional memories. Anne went into hiding, was captured, and died during WWII. She would not be known today if it were not for her father Otto Frank, who published Anne’s diary.

Before the tragic events of the holocaust, Anne lived a normal teenage life. She was born into an upper-class Jewish family in Frankfurt, Germany. When the Nazis started to implement their policies, Otto decided to leave Germany and move to Amsterdam. He started his business called the “Dutch Opekta Company.” During this time, as the Nazis became more aggressive, Jews were taken to concentration camps and treated inhumanely. The treatment from Nazis became so harsh that the Franks, alongside four other friends, went into hiding. They hid above Otto’s business, called the annexe, with the help of other friends. Two weeks before going into hiding, Anne turned 13, and was gifted her diary, “Kitty.” [Read More]

The Battle of Wisconsin Heights

by Ayelen Flores Ruiz, age 14

The Battle of Wisconsin Heights was the turning point of the Black Hawk War, an historic event that helped shape Wisconsin. It is also a very important battle because it was the last Indigenous battle to happen in the United States. A critical outcome of the battle was the decrease of the Native American population.

The “Black Hawk War'' refers to the conflict between the U.S. and Sauk American Indians. It was named after Black Hawk, the leader of the Sauk tribe, who led the Fox, Kickapoo and Ho-Chunk tribes in battle. The Battle of Wisconsin Heights began on July 21, 1832, when about 120 warriors and 700 non-combatants passed through what is now downtown Madison. The Sauk hiked over the landmarks now known as the Capitol Square, UW-Madison campus, and Lake Mendota. The Sauk starved throughout the duration of the journey, which led many to be caught or killed by soldiers. After reaching the south shore of the Wisconsin River, U.S. troops fired upon the Sauk who tried to cross the Wisconsin River while the sun was setting. The troops had been deployed in that same spot since morning. [Read More]

What's the Difference Between Karate and Kung Fu?

by Semaia Zerezghi, age 9

Two of the most well-known martial arts are Karate and Kung Fu. However, few people often know the difference between the two.

The most unique aspects and distinguishing features of Karate and Kung Fu lie in their differences in place of origin and overall fighting style. Additionally, they have different histories and practices.

Karate, which means "empty hands," is a martial art that requires no weapons and was developed in Okinawa, Japan. From its origin in Okinawa, Karate slowly grew and became a popular sport. It even debuted at the Tokyo, Japan, Olympic Games in 2020. Unfortunately, Karate was a sport for the Summer Olympics in Paris, France, 2024. [Read More]

How Speed Defined World War II Blitzkrieg Tactics

by Jafet Morales, age ll

After World War I, Germany developed a war tactic called blitzkrieg: a concentrated strategy combining power, speed, leadership, and coordination. This strategic approach helped the Nazis achieve early victories in World War II (WWII). Despite initial successes, Germany ultimately faced defeat after six years of fighting against the United Kingdom, the United States of America, the Soviet Union, and various resistance groups in occupied territories.

Surprise attacks and creating panic were crucial aspects of Nazi blitzkrieg tactics. Stuka dive bombers, recognizable for their menacing sirens, were deployed to divebomb enemy targets, instilling fear and disrupting defenses. However, the sirens' noise also slowed the aircraft, increasing vulnerability to enemy fire. Stukas were a formidable symbol of German air power during the early stages of WWII. [Read More]

Remembering Lou Conter: The Last Survivor of the USS Arizona in Pearl Harbor

by Max Moreno, age 11

The devastating events of Pearl Harbor took the lives of many. After the tragic event, survivors of the attack recounted their experiences. Unfortunately, the last living survivor of the attack passed away in early April 2024, at the age of 102.

Lou Conter was born in Ojibwe, Wisconsin, on Sept. 13, 1921, and was a quartermaster in the Navy. He was standing on the main deck of the USS Arizona battleship when Japanese planes flew over and bombed the ship. The explosion lifted the ship 30 feet out of the water as one million pounds of gunpowder stored below the ship were set off. Everything was on fire. “Guys were running out of the fire trying to jump over the sides and oil all over the sea was burning,’’ Conter said. In his autobiography “The Lou Conter Story”, Counter describes how he joined other survivors in battle and aided those that were injured. The sailors only abandoned ships if the senior surviving officer was certain that everyone alive was rescued. The USS Arizona wreckage still lies where it sank with remains of more than 900 sailors and Marines inside. [Read More]

Learn the History of Wisconsin's State Capitol Buildings

by Atisse Robbins, age 13

Did you know Wisconsin's first capitol was not built in Madison? The first capitol building, called the territorial capitol, was built by James Atchison in the town of Old Belmont. The capitol was built around 1836, using wooden pieces made in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Today, the territorial capitol remains in Lafayette County as one of Wisconsin's historical sites.

The first state capitol was built under the supervision of James D. Doty and John O'Neill. Construction started in 1837, but it was not finished until 1848. It was expected to cost $40,000, but after it was completed, the expenses were $60,000. [Read More]

Nellie Bly Trailblazed a New Kind of Investigative Journalism

by Cataleya Garcia Fox, age 11

Elizabeth Jane Cochran, also known as Nellie Bly, was a journalist and record-setter who traveled around the world.

She was born in Cochran’s Mills, Pennsylvania, on May 5, 1864. Bly grew up with her older brothers and parents, who loved her very much. Unfortunately, her father passed away when she was six. Her family needed money, which led her to work more often. Bly truly wanted to teach but had to drop out of school to provide for her family.

When Bly was 16, she started reading an article in the Pittsburgh newspaper that described women as helpless and pathetic. The article shocked and offended her. She was not afraid to show that she had her rights. Thus, Bly wrote a letter to the editor expressing her thoughts and detailing how the article was offensive to women. The editor was impressed by Bly’s confidence; in fact, he wrote back, offering her a job. [Read More]

King Tutankhamen’s Reign and His Unfinished Tomb

by Marco Flores, age 9

Tutankhamen ruled Egypt from 1333 - 1323 B.C. He became king when he was only nine years old. Tut’s father, Akhenaten, had tried to change the religious beliefs of the land. He wanted the Egyptians to worship only Aten, the god of the sun. However, the priests, elites, and common people did not approve of this change. Despite this, the people had to follow the orders and submit to these beliefs.

After Tut's father passed, Tut took the throne and repaired old temples and paid for new statues of gods. He even changed his name from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun after taking the throne.

Tut’s rule over Egypt did not last long. He died around the age of 19. Experts are uncertain about the cause of Tut’s death, but some speculate that it could have been due to a chariot crash, a mosquito bite, a bone illness, or some combination of these factors. After Tut’s death, the throne went to his advisor, Ay. [Read More]

From Fear to Fallout, The Manhattan Project and the Dawn of Nuclear Weapons

by Max Moreno, age 11

Amidst WWII, United States Authorities feared that Hitler would get his hands on nuclear weapons before them. As a result, President Roosevelt started the Manhattan Project to make the first atomic bomb.

Scientists figured out that if they split an atom in half, it released a lot of energy. On July 16, 1945, a scientist named Julius Robert Oppenheimer, also known as the father of the Atomic Bomb, and a few other scientists successfully made the first Atomic Bomb and named it Trinity. They set off the bomb in a remote desert in New Mexico. It had a blast force equivalent to 18,000 U.S. tons of TNT. Although Oppenheimer was happy that his creation was successful, he also feared its potential to create mass destruction.

By the time they made the bomb, Germany had already surrendered, and WWII was over in Europe, but Japan refused to surrender. President Truman decided to drop the bomb on Japan after estimating the U.S. would lose around 500,000 to 1 million soldiers if they tried to invade the country. Even though Oppenheimer disagreed he had to prove his loyalty to protect himself and his family. On Aug. 6, 1945, a bomb named Little Boy, which was around ten feet in length and weighed 10,000 pounds, was dropped by a B-29 bomber plane named Enola Gay on Hiroshima, Japan. [Read More]

Mary, Queen of Scots, Led a Life Full of Power, Love, and Betrayal

by Haliah Berkowitz, age 13

Many people know of Mary Queen of Scotland. However, few people know how she became queen, her adventures before and after the throne, and her many husbands and lovers.

Mary was born on December 8, 1542, a week before her father died. She became Queen of Scotland at six days old. It was previously agreed that she would wed the Prince of England. However, the Scots refused the arrangement. The English king sought to change their minds through force and power. A war broke out, and the battle was called the “Rough Wooing.”

In order to secure a Catholic alliance against Protestant England, Mary was sent to France to weather young French heir Dauphin. In 1561, the Dauphin died, still very young. Mary returned to Scotland as a widow. At this time, Scotland was going through a reformation due to a largely growing Protestant and lessening Catholic populace. [Read More]

Helena Rubinstein Built a Multimillion-Dollar Beauty Empire

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

Have you ever wondered how the makeup and cosmetic industry started? Are you curious to know who built a multimillion-dollar beauty industry? Helena Rubinstein was one of the first women to achieve this feat.

Helena Rubinstein was born on Christmas Day, December 25, 1870. She founded a global cosmetics empire, which began her journey of becoming one of the wealthiest women in the world. She used her wealth to create a product that would become one of the most successful on the planet. The foundation, a face cream, helped women's health. The brand was named after her and still exists to this day.

Helena always found business opportunities, especially when she visited some relatives in Australia. She discovered that women's skin was damaged and drier in hot weather. She combined her cream with a family formula that improved women's skin, leading her to be even more successful. [Read More]

Genghis Khan and the Rise of the Mongol Empire

by Marco Flores, age 9

The largest land empire was none other than the Mongol Empire. The empire stretched from Hungary to Korea and had more than 100,000,000 people living within the empire. They lived as nomadic tribes in a region that is now known as modern day Mongolia.

During the early 13th century, Temujin, a warlord, united the Mongol tribes. The Mongols warriors were fierce and had great skills for riding horses and archery. Temujin was given the name Genghis Khan for his great leadership.

In 1209, Genghis Khan attacked Xixia in northern China. In 1211, He got involved in the Jin Dynasty And turned on them. In 1223, the Mongol Empire expanded westward, conquering the Turkish Muslim Shaddom of Khwarizm in Persia. The Mongol were able to overcome the Turkic people, which were then recruited to the Mongol armies. Genghis Khan died in 1227 after a campaign in China and was succeeded by his son Ogodei. Under Ogodei, the empire continued to grow and expand. On the east, the Mongols conquered the Jin in 1234. Following this, they went to conquer the Southern Song, Caucasus, and Anatolia. In 1237 the Mongols even invaded Russia. [Read More]

Jackie Robinson, The Legend Who Changed Baseball

by Max Moreno, age 11

Jack Roosevelt Robinson, also known as Jackie Robinson was a legendary baseball player who broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball by becoming the first Black American to be in the MLB. However, Robinson wasn't just any ordinary baseball player.

Robinson was born on Jan. 31, 1919, and grew up in Cairo, Georgia. During high school he played many sports like baseball, basketball, football and track. He was also named the state's MVP in 1938. He attended UCLA, where he was the university's first student to win varsity letters in four sports. In the 1940s Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum, when they were attending UCLA and got married in 1946. However he had to drop out of UCLA just shy of graduation because he didn't have enough money. After moving to Honolulu Hawaii, Robinson played football for the semi-professional league but his season was cut short as the United States entered WWII. He was drafted to the war from 1942 to 1944 and served as a second lieutenant but never fought in combat. After he was discharged from the army, Robinson began to play baseball but at that time baseball was segregated and white and Black people played in different leagues. [Read More]

Göbekli Tepe Is the World's Oldest Temple

by Dayanara Flores Gonzalez, age 16

The Gobekli Tepe, also known as "Hill with a Navel" or "Potbelly Hill," is found ten miles northeast of Sanliurfa, an ancient city in southeastern Turkey. It was once named "Edessa" and is known as "The City of the Prophets."

Gobekli Tepe was discovered by a German archeologist named Klaus Schmidt, who formerly worked on a different ancient site that predated Gobekli Tepe. This site is the oldest man-made place of worship that has been discovered and dates back to 10,000 BCE.

These temples contained loft pillars with carved reliefs of different animals, such as snakes, foxes, and lions. Bones have been discovered on the site, which might have been used for ritual sacrifices and feasts. Gobekli Tepe was filled with numerous Neolithic flint tools, knives, choppers, and projectile points. [Read More]

Discovering Aztalan, Wisconsin's Hidden Ancient Civilization

by Aria McClinton, age 13

Aztalan was an ancient civilization located in what is now southern Wisconsin. It was discovered in the 1820s by American settlers, who named the hidden civilization but did not explore its origins.

Then came Increase A. Lapham, a natural scientist from Wisconsin. He revisited Aztalan in 1850 after the settlers. Lapham couldn't tell what used to be there. He studied and made detailed drawings of the area. These maps helped future researchers see what Aztalan was like before much of it was turned into farmland.

In 1919, Samuel Barrett, the founder of the Milwaukee Public Museum, did detailed research under the surface of Aztalan. At first, he thought the hills and bumps were effigy mounds from the Native Americans. Later, Barrett discovered that the Crawfish River cut a ravine through some of the land. He was excited because this revealed more tools, bones, and other artifacts. Later in his studies, he could tell that it was a very advanced civilization from things like structures or pottery. [Read More]

History Tells New Story of First Black American to Reach the North Pole

by Aubrey A Bevenue, age 12

Robert Peary is recognized as the first person to set foot on the North Pole. While he did not get a lot of recognition at the time, the African-American explorer, Matthew Henson was also ultimately recognized.

Matthew Henson was a skilled explorer. He was very experienced since he began his life on a merchant ship, starting when he was only 12 years old. He learned cartography and maritime astronomy while being at sea in the Arctic. He also spoke one of the main languages of people who lived near the Arctic, known as the Inuit language. Many people knew Henson as Miy Paliuk, which also translated to “Matthew, the kind one.” He also later had a son with an Inuit woman.

40 dogs pulled the sled that transported the explorers. The dogs ran for five days in freezing temperatures, and the men's faces became raw over time. Henson's accomplishments represented that African American people could also be successful. He wrote an autobiography in 1912, that talks about his success and challenges with his teammate and the journey. [Read More]

Machu Picchu Provides a Glimpse Into Past Inca Life

by Marco Gonzales, age 9

During the 20th century, Machu Picchu was rediscovered. At first, researchers thought it was Vilcabamba, a village where Incas were known to survive when the Spanish took over. However, this theory is now considered wrong; instead, Machu Picchu was likely an important ceremonial and religious site. Though the exact date of Machu's construction is unclear, it likely grew during the rapid expansion period of the Inca Empire at the end of the 15th century.

Machu Picchu was a site that contained gardens, terraces, ceremonial buildings, and palaces. Hundreds of steps connected the terraced gardens with aqueducts, fountains, and bath buildings throughout the land. Skeletons excavated from the site show that the female-male ratio was 10:1, which led to the belief that Machu Picchu was a site of sun worship and sanctuary for women, known as the Virgins of the Sun. Furthermore, there is evidence of a stone structure known as Intihuatana (Hitching Post of the Sun), which is thought to have been a device for calculating dates and solstices. [Read More]

Marilyn Monroe's Life of Fame Had a Tragic Behind-the-Scenes

by Siwoo Park, age 12

Marilyn Monroe was one of the most iconic film stars of the 1950s, and to this day, she remains a timeless image of beauty and style. Her rise to Hollywood fame was a “rags-to-riches” story, but was her reality all fame and glory?

Norma Jean Baker, later known as Marilyn Monroe, was born on June 1st, 1926. She was the daughter of Gladys Baker, who was a film editor for RKO Pictures. Unfortunately, Gladys’ mental state worsened after Norma’s birth, and she was transferred to a mental institution. During her childhood, Norma was put in orphanages and foster homes.

In 1941, Grace McKee Goddard, a friend of Gladys Baker, took Norma in as she could no longer afford to help her. Norma’s best alternative was to get married at the age of 16 to her 21-year-old neighbor. She married James Dougherty in 1942, but he joined the Merchant Marines and was sent to the South Pacific. [Read More]

Learn About Real Madrid's Century Long Soccer Success

by Juanes Palma, age 11

Real Madrid is a professional soccer team that has dominated European soccer at a level that exceeds many other teams. The complete name is Real Madrid Club de Futbol. They are also called Los Blancos, meaning “the whites” in English.

Real Madrid branched off from another team founded in 1897 in Madrid, Spain. It wasn't until 1902 that Real Madrid was officially founded. The team has had countless achievements since then. When the European Cup was first held in 1955-56, Real Madrid was the tournament’s first winner and continued to dominate the scene yearly.

On their team, they have had superstar players like Ferenc Puskas, Alfredo di Estefano, Paco Gento, Hector Rial, Miguel Muñoz, David Beckham, Luis Figo, Ronaldo, Zidane, Kaka’, and Cristiano Ronaldo, to name a few. They won five European Cups in a row. One of the teams they played against was Germany, winning 7-3 in 1960. [Read More]

Chief Buffalo: A Leader's Legacy in Preserving Ojibwe Rights

by Ian Kosharek age 11

Kechewaishke, known as Chief Buffalo, was the tribal leader of the Lake Superior Ojibwe people. He lived in La Pointe, which today is known as Madeline Island. Kechwaishke was born in 1759 and died in 1855.

Kechewaishke played a major role in signing treaties between the U.S. government and the Ojibwe tribe. He was well known for his work to conserve lands for Native Americans in Wisconsin, resisting attempts by the U.S. government to take away territories. Kechewaishke and the tribe peacefully protested against the U.S. government. His people valued and recognized his ability to speak publicly, and other Ojibwe tribes in the area began to recruit him as a spokesperson to negotiate treaties with the government.

Kechewaishke served as an authority figure who represented Ojibwe tribes in the Lake Superior region for the treaties of 1837 and 1842. In these treaties, he wrote letters describing his discontent with the United States government and its actions to gain control of native land to access lumber and other natural resources. At 93 years old, Kechewaishke even went to Washington, D.C., with other tribal leaders to speak about the injustices they faced by the government with President Millard Filmore. [Read More]

The History Football: A Rough and Thrilling U.S. Tradition

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

Football is a very interesting sport and fun to play! Lots of people like football and you might like playing football too. However, let me warn you, it is a very rough game. Football's first-ever game was in 1865. Rules for college football were made two years later and the very first NFL game was played in 1895.

When a match is played, it starts with a kickoff. The kickoff team kicks the football to the receiving team. One player from the receiving team catches the ball and must run it to the other side of the field – but here is where the game can get physical. The kickoff team can do anything they want. They can tackle, throw down, or push the ball carrier out of the sidelines. When the football goes out of the sidelines, it is called out of bounds.

The grassy football field is in the shape of a rectangle and is 120 yards long. For a team to score a touchdown, they must bring the football to their opponent’s endzone on the other side of the field, where they score six points. But while going down the field they have four tries, known as “downs”, to move the ball at least ten yards. Both offense and defense teams have 11 players on the field. [Read More]

How the Danish Resistance Fought Nazi Occupation with 'Illegal' Newspapers

by Allison Wallace, age 11

On April 9, 1940, Germany officially invaded and occupied Denmark, a small country in northern Europe that could not hold its own for very long. Most Danes opposed the occupation, so the Danish resistance was formed.

The Danish resistance comprised mostly young people who believed in Denmark's freedom. To update civilians on the resistance's latest news, multiple "illegal" newspapers were formed. One of the most well-known was De Frie-Danske, which translates to the Free Danes. These newspapers kept people up to date on what was going on, such as bombing Nazi supply trains and what was taking place in the war outside of Denmark. Since newspapers were deemed illegal, people often burned them after reading them. Danes kept a lot of other secrets, too. One way they accomplished this was through the use of code.

This was necessary because if the wrong people at the wrong time were to overhear them, there would be consequences. One example comes from a scene in the book Number the Stars by Lois Lowry, set during the Danish resistance. It has a character on the phone who uses cover words such as "going fishing" and "bringing cartons of cigarettes" to hide what they were actually doing, helping a Jewish character escape to Sweden by boat. [Read More]

The “Mataafa Blow” of 1905 was Lake Superior’s Greatest Storm

by Will DeFour, age 13

Lake Superior has sunk over 500 ships, claiming an estimated 30,000 lives. This lake's ability to sink ships is primarily attributed to the terrifying storms that terrorize its mountain-like waves. With hail storms, frigid waters, and winds reaching 70 miles an hour, it's no wonder this lake has taken so many lives. Some ships have become famous, such as the Edmund Fitzgerald, but one legendary storm sank almost 20 boats in just two days.

On November 27, 1905, this behemoth of a storm hit Lake Superior, caused by a low and high-pressure system violently hitting each other. Some captains foolishly tried to brave the storm. Those who attempted had to retreat to their harbors or sink thousands of feet below. Capt. Richard F. Humble of the Mataafa decided to brave the storm, not knowing that the sheer weight of this storm would soon humble him.

On the first day of the storm, after 12 hours of winds reaching hurricane speeds, Humble realized that there was no way he could face the weather. With snow falling so quickly that he could not see anything beyond the ship, the crew made their way closer to shore. The captain said, "The sea [Lake Superior] had become so large that it was running over our decks on both sides." Humble, with his back to the storm, decided to sail back to his home port as quickly as he could, unaware of the horrors that would await him there. [Read More]

How Local People Maintain the Great Mosque of Djenne in West Africa

by Dayanara Flores Gonzalez, age 16

Djenne is one of the oldest towns in sub-Saharan Africa. Dating back to 250 BC, it grew as an essential connection in the trans-Saharan gold trade and is described as the "Twin City" of ancient Timbuktu. Djenne's rich past is an integral part of Islamic history. It was a center for the spread of Islam in Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. Djenne continues to be a representative of Islamic architecture in sub-Saharan Africa.

Ancient architecture in West Africa uses Earth elaborately. It is home to an abundance of clay houses that blend into its natural surroundings and is the largest earthen mud structure in the world. Every spring, there is a festival that brings the entire town population together to celebrate faith and heritage. This festival is called the Crepissage or the "plastering."

The residents of Djenne work together every year to replaster the Great Mosque. Like the town's traditional clay homes, the mosque contains earthen mud walls coated with adobe plaster. The Sudano-Sahelian architecture, the original structure of the mosque, is believed to have been built around the 13th century. The mosque has been reconstructed at least twice. [Read More]

Learn About the Armored Giant of the Dinosaur World

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

The Ankylosaurus was an armored dinosaur species that became extinct long ago. It was the heaviest armored dinosaur in the world. Surprisingly, there were spikes in their skin, too! With its solid and durable plates, this herbivorous dinosaur was very hard to attack and quickly defended itself. Their plates served as protection against carnivores, and male Ankylosaurs also used them in self-defense against other males to win over their mates.

There were two main sub-species of the Ankylosaurus: nodosaurs and ankylosaurs. Ankylosaurs had wider spikes than the nodosaurs. Most Ankylosaurus were about the size of a military tank, weighed about 10,000 pounds, and were 30 feet long. Scientists believe that this enormous dinosaur could move three miles an hour, which is no faster than a human walking. This may come as a surprise, considering it was a dinosaur.

The Ankylosaurus had a cube-like rock at the end of its tail that could swing at any predator in danger. This tail could be turned with such force that it could break an ancient crocodile's bones with just one blow. These dinosaurs lived for a long time through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Ankylosaurus fossils have been found on almost every continent, including Antarctica, but not Africa! The Ankylosaurus went extinct 70 million to 66 million years ago. [Read More]

Wisconsin's Long History of Schools for the Blind and Deaf

by Dayanara Flores Gonzalez, age 16

Most students know how to read and write, but these tasks are difficult or even impossible for students who can’t see or hear. Parents in Wisconsin have sent their visually impaired children to special schools to be educated since the 1800s.

Before Wisconsin was a state, citizens had already noticed that educational facilities for visually and hearing impaired children needed to be provided. In 1843, Increase A. Lapham petitioned Congress to give funds to build schools for visually and hearing-impaired children, but nothing was done to make a change. The institution first began in Janesville when private citizens decided to create the first state school for impaired students. J.T. Axtell, a graduate of the Ohio Institution for the Blind, arranged a village meeting explaining several methods to teach children with defective vision.

Thirty residents gave $430 to start a school and purchase construction equipment. In October 1849, eight visually impaired students attended the first school for the impaired in the state, held in a private home. They asked the Legislature to help fund their school, and landmakers approved. The school tax-supported a budget of $2,500 to keep the school running in its building. [Read More]

The Milwaukee Bucks' Historic Victory Over the U.S.S.R

by Zayn Khalid, age 13

The United States and the Soviet National team (U.S.S.R.) had one of the biggest basketball rivalries of the '70s and '80s, especially when the U.S. lost to the U.S.S.R. in the 1972 Olympic finals. Then 15 years later, the Milwaukee Bucks played the U.S.S.R., and the game was not even close.

In 1987, the Milwaukee Bucks beat the U.S.S.R. at the McDonald’s Basketball Open. The final score of the game was 127-100 with the Bucks leading by 50 points at some parts of the game. The win was the second of a three-day tournament.

The Bucks still dominated with three of their better players out, including Sydney Moncrief, who had just received knee surgery, John Lucas, and Rickey Pierce. The U.S.S.R. was also missing players like their dominant 7 '2 center Arvidas Sabonis, due to an Achilles injury, and his backup, Aleksandr Belosteni, who suffered a sprained left ankle. [Read More]

Theater Review: “What the Constitution Means to Me”

By Camila Cruz, age 16

Forward Theater’s production of “What the Constitution Means to Me,” directed by Jen Uphoff Gray, captures audiences with its unique approach to considering the United States Constitution.

Leading actress Colleen Madden of American Players Theater portrays playwright and protagonist Heidi Schreck in this autobiographical play. Madden opens the play by introducing herself as Heidi Schreck and explaining her connection to the Constitution. As a high schooler, Schreck competed in constitutional speech and debate contests, for which she earned college scholarships. At age 15, Schreck loved the Constitution and its study, and she felt deeply inspired by this “living document.”

The first part of the play revolves around 50-year-old Schreck “recreating” one of her high school competitions. She acts like her polite and invigorated 15-year-old self. But she also pauses her reenactment to comment on how her understanding of amendments and clauses has deepened through time and experience. [Read More]

Teotihuacán, Mesoamerica’s City of Gods and Pyramids

by Edwin Torres, age 12

Teotihuacán was an ancient city in Modern-Day Mexico that was once known as Mesoamerica’s biggest city; the city was even bigger than Rome. Teotihuacán is an Aztec name meaning “place of the gods.” The population was around 50,000-100,000 people and the city covered an area over eight square miles. It was a sophisticated city, with religious buildings, wide streets, and private houses. According to local legend, it has been said that the sun and the moon were born in Teotihuacán. Not a lot is known about the daily life and customs of its people. However, we do know that the people of Teotihuacán praised certain gods. The rain god and the jaguar were two important figures for them. That was discovered by studying the engravings on religious temples. This civilization was advanced because of how carefully the city was built. They had a grid system that controlled the access to water.

Teotihuacán is dominated by two main pyramids: the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Sun. There are also two monumental public places at the heart of the city: the Citadel and the Great Compound. The Great Compound has two big platforms on several building stands. The Citadel played a religious role, approached by a stairway. The platform supported another pyramid, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, which rose to about seventy feet in the tiers made of richly carved sculptures. The stone serpent heads coming from the tiers appear alarming to this day.

Local supplies such as obsidian were important for trading in a chiefly agricultural economy. The high-quality murals suggest that the people from Teotihuacán were good at art, but evidence of human sacrifice during the years of decline points to a more barbaric side of their culture. Nobody knows how Teotihuacán came to an end, but somewhere around the eighth century, the city had been burned and sacked. [Read More]

Hanno the Navigator Explored Africa's Coast in Ancient Times

by Aissata Bah, age 14

Hanno the Navigator, from Tunisia, Africa, was one of the most important explorers of the 5th century B.C. His journey down the coast of Africa, took him thousands of miles, as he mapped new landmarks.

It’s believed Hanno was a king and seemed to be born into a family fascinated with science, geography, and exploration. From his home city of Carthage, he sailed south in search of new resources and trading opportunities, bringing cultural exchange, an important aspect of African history.

Hanno sailed to various places in Africa. He was best known for his naval exploration off the western coast of Africa. However, the only record of his long voyage is in a periplus (manuscript), a document listing ports, coastal landmarks, and approximate distances. The ships in this era weren’t meant for rigorous sailing as they were made out of wood and had a single sail. Also, considering the technology and knowledge of the time, compasses weren’t used in sailing and instead, people had to depend on the stars for navigation. [Read More]

Wisconsin's Dairy History from Wheat Fields to Cheese

by Allison Wallace, age 11

When people think about Wisconsin, most individuals think of the dairy industry, however, that was not always the case.

The cattle industry landed in the U.S. in 1707. Some cows were brought to Wisconsin by the British-American fur trade. Unlike now, these were only beef animals. In 1838 dairy cows were introduced to the state. In the 1850’s and early 1860’s, the wheat industry was much bigger than its dairy counterpart. Not many people were selling dairy to a mass market. Dairy farmers mostly traded with local stores and neighbors and used milk, butter, and cheese in their households.

This changed in the late 1860s when wheat prices fell because wheat producers struggled due to overused land, crop diseases, chinchbug infestation, and lowering prices. This allowed the dairy industry to take off. [Read More]

Ancient Human Footprints Found in White Sands National Park Raise Questions

by Dani Garduno Martinez, age 11

Many people usually imagine mammoths, dinosaurs, and ancient beasts when considering fossils. However, a large majority of people miss an important category: human fossils. A recent discovery was made in White Sands National Park in New Mexico.

Many people down by the White Sands National Park have been buzzing with excitement because of the discovery of the human footprints. They were found and began to be studied in 2021. According to archaeologists, these fossils may be one of the oldest fossils that affirm humans originating from North America. Archeologists have been able to strengthen this argument since recent data shows that footprints have been there for 21,000 to 23,000 years ago. Yet some archeologists wonder if these fossils may really be from our ancestors from the Americas.

These human fossils may not be as old as they seem to be. Archeologists and scientists debate whether ancient seeds of aquatic plant life may have absorbed old carbon, making their original reported age invalid. In the process of finding fossils, they also found a big cluster of quartz grains and conifer pollen, which they used to confirm the original statement. [Read More]

Chichen Itza Blends Maya and Toltec Civilization

by Kimberly Rodriguez, age 11

In the tenth century AD, the Maya civilization lived in Chichen Itza. Located in Mexico, it was an important site to the Mayans and later to the Toltec warriors.

The Toltec warriors took over Chichen Itza from the Mayan people and made it a better version of their capital, Tula. The temple of the warriors contained countless carved objects like pieces of art, including jaguar and eagle motifs to represent the Toltec warriors. The Toltec warriors were a very strong civilization that conquered Teotihuacan. They ruled over Mexico from the mid-10th to mid-12th century AD

El Castillo is known as a pyramid temple dedicated to the ruler god Kukulcan. It is depicted as a feathered serpent deity and is carved along the staircase of the temple. Due to its detailed architecture, shadows of the staircase outline the serpent descending from the temple. The Mayans ' years cycle was also a very important part of their culture and they included it in the temple as well. [Read More]

The Ghost Ship from a Christmas Past

by Sandy Flores-Ruiz, age 17

On Nov. 22, 1912, the Rouse Simmons embarked on its journey from Michigan to Chicago, carrying Christmas trees. However, as families gathered at the port, their anticipation turned to concern when the vessel failed to arrive. The absence of the ship cast a shadow over the hope for Christmas that year. Once full of life, the boat was now on the bottom of the lake.

The Rouse Simmons was a 123-foot ship built in Milwaukee in 1868. Its voyage that day was one of its dozens of tree deliveries. Captain Herman Schuenemann, affectionately known as Captain Santa, led this family business with unparalleled generosity, ferrying Christmas joy from Michigan's Upper Peninsula to Chicago.

Before departure, the captain's daughter sensed that something was wrong. She pleaded with her father to delay or delegate the task, but his determination to bring Christmas prevailed. Despite the ship's unsuitability to weather the formidable storm of the decade—riddled with leaks, rat infestations, and confronting winds raging at 60-80 mph in winter—he assured her of a timely return. Many of his crew members refused to board, so it was estimated that 16 or 23 men were on board. [Read More]

The Journey of Pelé, Brazil's Soccer Maestro

by Edwin Torres, age 12

Pelé has been considered one of the best soccer players in the world by many. He has been the only player to win three World Cups. How did he get the title “Best Soccer Player”? Well, we are going to have to go all the way back to his early life in Brazil.

Pelé, whose actual name was Edson Arantes Do Nascimento, was born in Três Corações, Brazil, on October 23, 1940. Pelé grew up in poverty, and was really passionate about soccer. Since he could not afford a good ball to practice with, he kicked a rolled-up sock stuffed with rags around his neighborhood. The kids in his neighborhood called him “Pele” for no specific reason. He did not like it, but the name stuck to him.

When he was a young teenager, he joined a youth team managed by a former player from Brazil’s soccer team. At age 15, Pelé left his home to join the Santos professional club, which was five hours away. A few months after he joined the club, he scored the first goal of his professional soccer career. The Brazilian national team spotted his spectacular skills on the field, and recruited him to play for the team at the early age of 16. [Read More]

Ray Charles: A Soulful Genius and Pioneer of Musical Innovation

by Atisse Robbins, age 12

Ray Charles was born September 23, 1930, in Albany, Georgia. Ray was a highly influential American musician who left an amazing mark on the music industry.

He was known as “The Genius.” Charles revolutionized popular music by seamlessly blending various genres such as rhythm, blues, gospel, jazz, and country. His extraordinary talent as a singer, songwriter, and pianist, combined with his innovative approach to music, earned him a lasting legacy as one of the most celebrated and respected musicians of the 20th century.

Ray Charles was born into a modest family and began losing his sight due to glaucoma at a young age. Despite this challenge, he displayed an early affinity for music by teaching himself how to play the piano by ear. The sounds of jazz, blues, and gospel-influenced Ray. Charles honed his musical style which would later spread worldwide. In the 1940s, Charles embarked on his musical journey performing in the vibrant Florida music scene. Inspired by jazz pianists like Art Tatum and Nat King Cole, he soon ventured into rhythm and blues, infusing it with gospel to create a soulful and expressive sound. [Read More]

Muhammad Ali: The Unmatched Legacy of a Boxing Legend

by Iliyan Hoskins, age 10

Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr., more commonly known as Muhammad Ali, was a professional boxer who achieved many accomplishments, including an olympic gold medal in 1960 in Rome and a world heavyweight championship title. Throughout Ali’s career, he faced much success and controversy that would make him a household name.

On January 17, 1942, Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. was born in Louisville, Kentucky. He was named after his father Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr. Clay's mother was Odessa O’Grady Clay. Clay was born dyslexic, so it was hard for him to learn in school and it caused him some trouble throughout his life.

When Clay was 12, a thief stole his bike. Clay’s boxing coach, Joe E. Martin, and a police officer saw Clay upset over the incident and at that moment, Martin encouraged Clay to try boxing. [Read More]

Cleopatra: The Last Pharaoh of Egypt

by Haliah Berokwits, age 12

Well-educated, a world ruler, and an established diplomat. These are difficult feats to accomplish in any era, but somehow Cleopatra did them all, thousands of years ago. This is the story of how a woman came to lead Egypt.

Cleopatra’s dad, Ptolemy XII, led an ancient Greek dynasty that took over Egypt in 305 B.C. He favored Cleopatra over all her other siblings. When she was 18 she was crowned queen even though she was not the oldest. She co-ruled with her brother Ptolemy XIII as king and she as queen. It was very common back then for people to get married to their family members. Even though Cleopatra did not want to share the throne, she still married to honor traditions. The young king wanted the throne for himself and war raged. They both fled to different parts of Rome and quickly allied themselves with powerful people. Cleopatra turned to some of the most powerful men in Rome, one in particular, Julius Caesar, to help her regain full power in Egypt.

Caesar and Cleopatra had a huge age difference. Caesar was about 30 years older than Cleopatra and was also married. They had an affair, and out of love he lavished her with gifts and gave her almost anything she wanted. In 47 B.C. Cleopatra’s brother and co-ruler drowned in the Nile River. She then married her 12-year-old brother Ptolemy XlV following tradition. [Read More]

The Grand Canyon's Last Mule Mail Route

by Dulce Vazquez, age 15

A few people living in the Grand Canyon still receive mail through mules. This is most likely one of the last official mail through mule routes in the world, according to Daniel Piazza, the patron curator of philately at the Smithsonian National Postal Museum.

Mail has been delivered by mule since 1930. Mules still carry mail to people who live in Supai, located in the Grand Canyon, outside of National Park Service jurisdiction. Supai is only accessible by hiking, taking a helicopter, rafting down the Colorado River, or by riding a mule: Mule trips take three to five hours down and back up.

Mules carry a limit of 200 pounds at a time while delivering items. This is why only one or two mules are on route every day. Mail is not the only thing being delivered by mule: food is also delivered. The majority of deliveries by mule is food, according to Piazza as a lot of people live approximately 45 minutes away from the nearest town. The U.S. Postal Service has a lot of dedication to their deliveries. [Read More]

The History and Evolution of Majorette Dancing

by Atisse Robbins, age 12

Majorettes encompass more than just dancing; they hold a significant cultural role, particularly in Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), as a tribute to Black culture.

The first majorette performance, known to history, occurred in 1968 at the Orange Blossom Classic in Florida. Alcorn State University introduced the first majorette group, the Golden Girls, composed of eight dancers. Originally, majorettes were carnival performers who skillfully manipulated their batons. Originating as Dansmarietjes, this style made its way to the American South and evolved into the HBCU tradition we recognize today.

Majorettes incorporate various dance styles like jazz, hip-hop, ballet, burlesque, kick lines, and bucking to both entertain audiences and pay homage to those who paved the way. At Alcorn State University, Junior Jakayla Loften is a member of the Golden Girls, and she credits her participation to personal growth, both as a dancer and as a woman. [Read More]

Secrets of the Ice: Archaeologists Discover Ancient Arrowhead inside a Melting Glacier

by Camila Cruz, age 15

As glaciers begin to melt, archaeologists in Scandinavia are discovering artifacts that help them learn more about the past. Recently, researchers found a well-preserved 1,500-year-old arrow, in what they believe is an ancient hunting ground.

The archaeologists who discovered the arrow are part of “Secrets Of The Ice”, a group of scientists and glacial archaeologists in Norway who explore and pinpoint glaciers. This arrow is not just any arrow. Not only is it believed to be older than the Vikings that inhabited the land from roughly 800-1100 AD, but it is also extremely well preserved.

The arrow was found between two rocks in Norway in an area where ancient people likely hunted reindeer. The archeologists think that the arrow was lost in the snow when one of the hunters missed a shot. Archaeologists believe the arrow was frozen into a glacier, and when the glacier melted it made its way down to where it was found. The fletching which helps stabilize the arrow while it’s flying is gone, but the arrowhead is still attached to the shaft, which is a unique discovery. [Read More]

The Dead Sea's Lifelessness, Ancient Wealth, and Healing Wonders

by Kevin Chen, age 15

Though the Dead Sea sounds like a scary place, the same reasons this body of water can not support plant or animal life made it a valuable resource in the ancient world. Back in the Roman era (476 C.E.), salt was considered highly valuable, so much so that Roman soldiers would be paid in salt, instead of money. The Latin word “salary” came from the word “salt”.

The Dead Sea, actually a lake, has had different names throughout history such as the Salt Sea and the Sea of the Plain. It is one of the four saltiest bodies of water in the whole world, containing up to 10 times as many minerals and salts as most oceans. Due to its high salinity, there are not any plants or animals that inhabit the Dead Sea. This excessive amount of salt and mineral concentration is because of the warm climate which causes water to evaporate. This drastically reduces the water-to-salt ratio in the lake. The lake is so salty that people can float on it.

The Dead Sea has also been known to have healing powers. The salt and minerals in the lake can be beneficial for skin diseases. The oxygen rate is 5% higher than most places on Earth, which can also help those with asthma and arthritis. The black mud found around the Dead Sea was once used as soap in ancient Greece because it could penetrate pores and nourish the skin. Now, multiple hotels around the Dead Sea provide an opportunity to try the benefits of the world’s first health resort. [Read More]

The History of Pringles Chips

by Moore Vang, age 14

In the 1950s, the company Procter & Gamble wanted to design a chip that

did not break, had flavor and had a new shape. After nearly a century, Pringles has generated popularity around the world and is one of the best chips out there.

A chemist named Fredric Baur created the design of the Pringle, which was [Read More]

Lake Chad: A Vital Ecosystem and Historic Hub of Civilization

by Dayanis Torres-Cruz, age 13

Lake Chad is made up of 17,000 square kilometers of fresh water located at the midpoint of dunes that stretch across Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon. Lake Chad has a rich history, but scientists say that the lake's water level changes based on rain and dry seasons, and its habitat surroundings are changing.

The ecosystem in Lake Chad has a variety of open waters, some permanent and others temporary. These bodies of water contain helpful nutrients that sustain the biodiversity in the lake. Many animals, such as hippopotamuses, Nile crocodiles, tortoises, sea turtles, otters, a few native birds, migratory birds, and about 120 types of fish all call Lake Chad home.

Historically, Lake Chad was settled around 500 BC at the earliest. The ancient Sao civilization had a deep history and connection to Lake Chad. Their history traces back to the Paleolithic age and it is believed that the Sao civilization came to Lake Chad from the Nile valley around the fifth century. The Sao civilization, one of the oldest known, left remains of architecture, showing that they lived by fishing and farming, and were very creative people. [Read More]

What was Life Like in the Ice Age?

by Kaleab Afeworki, age 11

The Ice Age was a cold time period where wooly mammoths roamed free, sea levels were at bay, and isthmuses served as a natural means of transportation.

Historically, there have been five major Ice Ages, with the first dating 2.3 billion years ago. During the first Ice Age, a huge layer of ice that was more than 650 feet thick encoated one-third of the Earth. Today, leftover ice still covers Greenland and Antarctica.

The book World History Encyclopedia states, “Since the Quaternary Ice Age, there have been 17 glacial (cold) and 17 interglacial (warm) periods.” Ice Ages start from the Earth changing its direction in its path as it orbits the Sun. The first Ice Age was called the Huronian Glaciation. Right now, we are living in the Holocene, a geological time period that began 11,700 years ago after the most recent major Ice Age. [Read More]

120-Million-Year-Old Dinosaur Fossil Sheds Light on Bird Evolution

by Dayanara Flores Gonzalez, 15

Scientists have just discovered a 120-million-year-old fossil that could help us learn more about landbound dinosaurs and their evolution into flying birds.

The Cratonavis Zhui bird was revealed to have a dinosaur-like head and a body similar to that of today's birds.

This bird originated from the northeast region of China. CT scans found its skull to be nearly identical to that of a theropod dinosaur, similar to the Tyrannosaurus Rex. The Chinese Academy of Sciences reports that the Cratonavis skull had not evolved its mobile upper jaw like other birds. [Read More]

Milwaukeean becomes first Black woman mathematician to have her papers in Library of Congress manuscript collection

by Hanna Eyobed, age 17

Gloria Ford Gilmer was an expert at ethnomathematics: how math manifests itself into the lives of cultures all around the world. She was a Black woman who dedicated her life to math: both the learning and teaching of it.

Gilmer received many of her accolades after her passing in August 2021. A historian of science and technology at the Library of Congress’ Manuscript Division, Josh Levy, reached out to Gilmer's family to uncover work that had been stored away. Gilmer left a legacy of success and transcending the odds; her files, documents, photographs, and VHS tapes were held in 64 bankers boxes and are now maintained in the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress, an honor that has not been held by a Black woman before her. Her work is now able to be examined and used for further research for other historians to explore for educational purposes.

Gilmer paved the way for Black intellectuals to follow. With her concentration in ethnomathematics, Gilmer taught all over Milwaukee, including the Milwaukee Area Technical College, the University of Wisconsin- Milwaukee, and various Milwaukee public schools. She was the first Black educator in many of the spaces she entered. There were many firsts in Gilmer's career, such as first Black person to earn a doctorate from Marquette University, first Black woman to sit on the Board of Governors for the Mathematical Association of America, and first Black woman to have her papers kept in the Library of Congress’ Manuscript Division. [Read More]

The African Kingdom of Kush Lasted Almost 2,000 Years

by Anissa Attidekou, age 13

In Africa's vast and storied history, the Kingdom of Kush is a shining example of the continent’s rich and diverse civilizations. The kingdom was established in what is present-day Sudan. Kush thrived from 800 BCE to 300 AD for over a thousand years. The kingdom of Kush rose to become a formidable power in Northeast Africa, leaving an indelible mark on the region’s history.

The Kush developed a distinct culture that was influenced by Egypt and Rome. Two of its major cities are located in the White and Blue Nile. Pharaohs were drawn to the kingdom's resources and launched their military to capture them. The Kush people worshiped similar gods and practiced identical rituals such as mummification and pyramid-building. Egypt was eventually weakened by outside invaders and Kush became independent around 1,800 BC.

Kush’s prosperity was deeply rooted in its control of trade routes. Its position allowed it to be a trading link between the civilizations of the Mediterranean and those of sub-Saharan Africa. This trade brought wealth and cultural exchange that developed the kingdom. [Read More]

Remembering Toni Morrison, USPS to Honor Renowned Novelist with Commemorative Stamp

by Riya Adhikari, age 11

Toni Morrison was a famous novelist who wrote non-fiction books about African Americans. She passed away on August 5th, 2019 at the age of 88 years old.

The United States Postal Service (USPS) is designing a stamp in honor of Toni Morrison. She wrote about the struggles of being an African American in the United States and created a voice for many people.

Toni Morrison's writing was beautifully created and artistically worded. Some of her most famous novels are “Beloved,” “The Bluest Eye,” and “Song of Solomon.” After writing some of her best work, she taught literature and writing at Princeton University for 17 years. [Read More]