Ethiopia: An African Nation Rich in History and Culture

by Arsema Biruk, age 9

Ethiopia is one of the oldest countries in the world. Ethiopia is a land-locked country in Eastern Africa, surrounded by Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan, and Sudan.

Ethiopia is mostly grassland, but has a variety of landscapes with highlands in the north, and lowlands in the south. The highlands have more rain and they are cooler with an average of 60 degrees fahrenheit. The lowlands have less rain and is warmer.

In Ethiopia, Amharic and Oromo are the most common languages. Ethnic groups include Oromo, Amhara, Somali, and Tigray. [Read More]

After 50 Years, the Story of the Edmund Fitzgerald Remains a Mystery

by Will DeFour, age 16

Fifty years ago, the Edmund Fitzgerald sank on its way from Superior, Wisconsin to Detroit, Michigan. It remains the largest shipwreck on the Great Lakes.

A “maximum-sized” Great Lakes ore carrier, at 729 feet, named after the chairman of the Milwaukee-based company that contracted it, the Edmund Fitzgerald launched on August 7, 1957. It was the largest ship on the Great Lakes until 1971. The Fitzgerald spent its career on the Great Lakes carrying small iron pellets called taconite from mines near Duluth, Minnesota, to steel mills near Detroit.

For six years, the ship known as Big Fitz was captained by Peter Pulcer. He was a “D.J. Captain” who played music over the intercom near Detroit, and entertained viewers with facts about the vessel while it passed through narrow locks connecting the big lakes. All this helped the Fitzgerald gain a reputation long before its infamous sinking. [Read More]

Madison’s Forgotten City Fades Into the Woods

by Allison Torres, age 16

Most cities are separate from the wild and natural elements that surround them. But there are still some interesting forgotten spots that humans no longer use. One such place is right here in Madison. While it’s now fading into the forest, Madison contains a lost city called Lake Forest.

Back in the early 1900s, developer Chandler B. Chapman had extensive plans for a city he called Lake Forest. Hidden in the underbrush, the lost city is deep within the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum.

Chapman wanted to build an 800-acre suburb with its own gas, electric, water service, schools, playgrounds, and even streetcars. There were also plans for restaurants and a civic center. However, his ideas didn’t work out because the ground was always wet and muddy. Due to this, whenever work crews built roads or foundations for homes, they all sank. After encountering this problem several times, they stopped building. [Read More]

Last Voyage of the Edmund Fitzgerald

by Max Moreno, age 13

The SS Edmund Fitzgerald was a freighter ship that sank in Lake Superior during a storm on Nov. 10, 1975. The entire crew of 29 men perished. Nicknamed mighty Fitz or Big Fitz, when it was launched on June 8, 1958, she was the largest ship on North America's Great Lakes and she remains the largest to have sunk there.

The ship suffered a series of mishaps during her launch, it took three attempts to break the champagne bottle used to christen her and she also collided with a dock when she entered the water.

For 17 years Fitzgerald carried iron ore pellets. She set a seasonal record six times, often beating her own previous record. Captain Peter Palser was known for playing music, day or night over the ship’s intercom system while passing through St. Clair and Detroit Rivers. He also entertaining spectators on boats between Lake Superior and Huron with a running commentary about his ship. [Read More]

The Wright Brothers Took Flight and Changed the World

by Alarice McPark, age 13

Humans first took flight on Dec. 17, 1903, in an aircraft that was invented by none other than the Wright brothers.

Orville and Wilbur Wright were born in the Midwest town of Dayton, Ohio. Wilbur was the older sibling, born in 1871. Orville was born five years later.

During their younger years, Orville and Wilbur had different reputations. Orville was a bright intellectual, albeit a mischievous and idle student. Wilbur was intelligent and composed. He also participated in school sports. Despite having great minds, neither man attended college. In fact, Orville did not receive a high school diploma. [Read More]

Homo juluensis: Possible 'New Ancient Human' Identified

by Dayanara Flores, age 17

A group of scientists has discovered an ancient human species while digging for fossils in East Asia. This newly discovered species is called ‘Homo juluensis.’

There is only one surviving species of hominin: Homo Sapiens, or modern human beings. However, there were other hominin species related to humans, which scientists are still trying to understand.

The species name Homo juluensis, meaning ‘big head,’ was chosen due to the notably large skulls of this hominin. In fact, scientists found that Homo juluensis has larger skulls and teeth than Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens. The fossils of Homo juluensis include several pieces of skull that break easily. Only 16 individual fossils of Homo juluensis have been discovered. [Read More]

An Original Letter from a Passenger on the Titanic Sold at Auction for $400,000

by Bridgett Mcpark, age 12

A letter that was written by one of the Titanic survivors, Archibald Gracie, sold for $399,000 during an auction by Aldrige & Son in April of 2025.

Colonel Archibald Gracie was one of the most well-known passengers on the Titanic. The letter was written on April 10th, 1912, just four days before the Titanic sank. In the letter, Gracie was staying in a first-class cabin and wrote to his friend describing how luxurious everything was.

On the ship, he reportedly spent much time reading books from the first-class library and chaperoning many unaccompanied women during the voyage. On the night the Titanic sank, he went to bed earlier than most passengers, since he wanted to play squash the next morning. [Read More]

Book Review: Number the Stars by Lois Lowry

by Leah Santiago, age 11

Number the Stars by Lois Lowry creates a story based on the tragedy of the Holocaust in 1943. In this book, the young protagonist, Annemarie, from Copenhagen, helps her family smuggle her best friend, Ellen, and Ellen’s parents to safety in Sweden. Ellen’s family is Jewish, and a symbol throughout this novel is Ellen's necklace. The pendant’s shape is of the Star of David, a prominent symbol in Judaism during the Holocaust. Jewish people were forced to wear this religious symbol to be identified.

The Holocaust was a genocide led by German dictator Adolf Hitler. He wanted to invade all the European countries with his army, the Nazis. His ambitions were to rid the world of the Jewish population.

This book takes place during the Danish Resistance. Fishermen within the resistance had secret hideouts in their boats where they would help Jewish people escape across European waters. During Nazi inspections of the boats using dogs, the fishermen carried handkerchiefs with a special drug on them. When sniffed, the drug would temporarily damage the dogs’ sense of smell. At one point in the book, while delivering her fisherman uncle lunch, Annemarie carries a picnic basket with a handkerchief with that very drug, without knowing what it can do. [Read More]

How the Bering Land Bridge Shaped Human Migration

by Camila Cruz, age 17

Thousands of years ago, humans used the Bering Land Bridge, a large strip of land connecting Siberia and Alaska, to cross from Asia to North America. During this time, sea levels were significantly lower, since much of the Earth's water was contained in massive glaciers. Due to this, land that is now underwater used to be above water, including this bridge of land stretching between two continents.

For roughly 25,000 years, this bridge served as a route for human migration into North America. The Bering Land Bridge, which allowed humans to move between continents, opened about 35,700 years ago. This information is supported by new research from Princeton University. A study suggests the time of the bridge’s appearance aligns with genetic evidence showing that ancestral Native American populations began separating from Asian populations. This suggests humans may have crossed the bridge as soon as it appeared.

The bridge emerged during the Last Glacial Maximum, a peak of the last ice age when ice sheets were at their largest and sea levels were at their lowest. Scientists previously believed sea levels had dropped steadily, but new data reveal that this drop and the growth of ice sheets happened much more abruptly. Surprisingly, these changes occurred even when global temperatures were relatively stable. Scientists started linking other factors, like changes in sunlight intensity, to ice sheet behavior. [Read More]

The Potawatomi Nation's Trail of Death

by Ayelen Flores, age 15

The Potawatomi Trail of Death resulted from the idea that Native Americans did not have the right to live alongside the white settlers. In 1838, white settlers removed the Potawatomi from their home in Indiana. The trail of death was a forced march that resulted in the deaths of many members of the Tribe. The anti-Native American sentiment among settlers emerged following the conclusion of the Black Hawk War.

The Black Hawk War was a significant conflict between the U.S. and the Sauk, which ended with tragic losses. Many white settlers despised Native Americans because of the Black Hawk War. Although the Potawatomi Tribe was peaceful and was not part of the war, they were not welcomed by white settlers. The settlers started to create new changes and implement new laws on Native Americans.

In 1819, the U.S. government wanted to “civilize” Native Americans. Congress created a new law that allowed the use of $10,000 for tuition toward mission schools for Native American children. Many of these schools were located in Indiana. The government said these schools were beneficial to the students; however, the President failed to use any of the money provided by the new law. [Read More]

For 40 Years, Women in Focus Provides College Scholarships for Local Young People

by Moore Vang, age 16

Another historic milestone is approaching for Women in Focus, Inc. as they celebrate their 40th annual “I Have a Dream” Ball early next year.

For 40 years, Women in Focus has developed and sustained an organization dedicated to helping young people pursue higher education. They provide scholarships to local high school and college students of color. Dozens of donor-backed scholarships are awarded each year to help local students thrive as they chase their goals.

The founders of the organization made this possible through vision and hard work. Verona Morgan, one of the original co-founders, helped steer the development of Women in Focus in its early stages in the 1980s. Morgan, along with eight other women, came together to help young people in their community. [Read More]

Lessons From the 1918 Spanish Influenza Pandemic

by Ruben Becerril, age 13

In the 20th century, there was a pandemic that infected a third of the world’s population: the Spanish influenza.

Spanish influenza was a pandemic caused by influenza A (H1N1). While the name may lead you to believe it originated in Spain, the exact origin is still debated, with cases first identified in the United States in early 1918. It was only called Spanish influenza because Spain, which was neutral during World War One and not subject to wartime press censorship, was one of the first countries to report openly about the pandemic. In contrast, other nations at war limited public discussion of the illness. This influenza A strain caused common flu-like symptoms, but also hemorrhaging, skin discoloration, and severe lung damage. The illness infected an estimated 500 million people worldwide and killed at least 50 million people, with deaths occurring on every continent.

Influenza spreads through the air from person to person, and the virus can last in a room for several hours. An infected person can “shed” the flu virus for up to a week. The pandemic quickly spread throughout the world, and with no antiviral medication, no influenza vaccine, and a shortage of doctors due to the war, the virus spread rapidly and killed easily. Unusually, most of the people who died were young adults. Some theories suggest that because young adults had not been exposed to a similar influenza strain, their immune systems were unable to defeat it. Another theory suggests that their immune systems overreacted to the virus, causing it to damage healthy tissue. [Read More]

Tricks and Freedom Shape the World of Freestyle Skiing

by Niko Sayu, age 11

When you think of skiing, you probably picture gliding smoothly down an icy slope, not words and phrases like “dub cork 10” or “switch blunt 9.” As made-up and crazy as these phrases might sound, they are very real and belong to a sport beloved by many: freestyle skiing.

Freestyle skiing, or freeskiing, is a relatively young sport with roots in the 1960s, a time of social change that created a demand for freedom, even in sports. Freestyle skiing was first known as “hot-dogging,” and consisted of combinations of aerial and acrobatic movements to form tricks.

Flash forward to the 1980s: Fédération Internationale de Ski, or the International Ski Federation (FIS), recognized freestyle skiing as a sport. They hosted multiple events, such as aerials and moguls, which were distinct from the prior versions. In aerials, skiers are launched into the air by tall, steep ramps shaped at tight angles to launch the athlete into a flip and/or spin. In moguls, skiers must quickly navigate sharp and frequent bumps, as well as an additional two smaller mandatory aerial jumps in between sections. [Read More]

How Did the State of Wisconsin Get Its Name?

by Daniel Li, age 17

Few details about Wisconsin’s past have caused as much confusion or speculation as the origin and meaning of its name. Folklore and rumors have persisted for centuries. But it wasn't until recently that the source of the name was discovered.

In short, the name 'Wisconsin' is the English spelling of a French typo of an explorer's interpretation of a phrase from the Miami Native American tribe, which describes the Wisconsin River and its surrounding landscapes. But like the river itself, the word had a long and winding journey to reach its final form.

The earliest known written version resembling Wisconsin was "Meskousing," recorded by French missionary Father Jacques Marquette in June 1673. Marquette noted this term during his exploration of the region with fur trader Louis Joliet. Their journey took them from Green Bay, through a complex network of rivers, and ultimately down the Mississippi. [Read More]

The Transcontinental Railroad Changed Travel and Trade in America

by Tajha Holthaus, age 10

The transcontinental railroad was built in the 19th century to transport people from Sacramento to Omaha.

The railroad took about six years to build. The total amount of funding provided by loans under the Pacific Railroad Act in 1862 was relative to the amount of track laid. Since funding depended on the amount of track laid, people tried to lay track as quickly as they could to get more loans. However, some people took the loans for themselves instead of paying the workers and getting more materials. The railroad construction was disrupted due to the Civil War; afterwards, railroad companies did not find enough workers, so they recruited Chinese and Irish immigrant soldiers to work for them. Most of the transcontinental railroad is still being used today.

The transcontinental railroad made travel easier from Sacramento to Omaha, and it helped transport goods faster. While this railroad system had its benefits, it also caused damage to communities such as those of Native Americans. The tracks crossed through Native American territory, and many passengers shot bison, which were the Native Americans’ primary source of food. [Read More]

Lost Egyptian Tomb Discovered!

by Haliah Berkowitz, age 14

A recent archaeological discovery has garnered attention from Egyptologists worldwide: the original tomb of King Thutmose II has been discovered.

Most people are familiar with some of the great pharaohs who ruled in Ancient Egypt's Eighteenth Dynasty, as well as those who were buried in the Valley of the Kings, including Queen Hatshepsut, Cleopatra, and King Tut. However, not many know that fourteen different great pharaohs and kings ruled, such as the great Pharaoh Thutmose II. Along with people not knowing who he was or the great life he lived, they also have very little understanding of his reign, death, and burial.

Pharaoh Thutmose II was a part of Ancient Egypt’s Eighteenth Dynasty. This Dynasty reigned for over two centuries, from 1550 BC to 1292 BC. King Thutmose's rule lasted from 1493 BC until around 1479 BC. He was the half-brother and husband of the Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut. The two were married when they were around fourteen or fifteen years old, and their marriage lasted for ten to fifteen years. However, Thutmose eventually died; after his death and burial, Hatshepsut named herself Queen and ruled by herself for over twenty years. [Read More]

Mary Fields Was the First Black Woman Mail Carrier

by Aubrey Bevenue, age 14

Stagecoach Mary Fields was a complex woman with many contrasts, hardships, and successes. She stood six feet tall and was strong, so many people made sure to stay away from her. She drank, smoked, carried a gun, and had a wild temper. Mary was the first African American woman to carry mail as a Star Route Contractor (SRC) for the United States.

Mary Fields’ birthday is unknown, but we do know that she was born into slavery between 1832 and 1833. Leading up to the Civil War, she worked for the Warner family in West Virginia before she was emancipated in 1863. Later, she moved from West Virginia to the Mississippi River and worked on steamboats.

Mary Fields ended up in Toledo, Ohio, where she began working at the Ursuline Convent of the Sacred Heart. While there, she washed laundry, bought supplies, managed the kitchens, and grew and maintained garden grounds. Mary was known to yell and lose her temper with anyone who stepped on her freshly cut grass. What is known is that Mary’s rough style was not the best fit for the serene calm that was the convent. [Read More]

Yogi Berra’s Story, From D Day to the Yankees

by Oliver Zink, age 14

Yogi Berra was one of the most talented and most influential baseball players and an American icon. He was the child of Italian immigrants, a World War II gunner, a record-holding athlete, and a baseball manager. He had a long, successful life and baseball career that all started with playing baseball in sandlots as a kid.

Yogi was a first-generation Italian American who grew up in a St. Louis neighborhood called “The Hill.” While there, he was surrounded by fellow Italian immigrants, which helped him grow up with a sense of community and Italian traditions.

Yogi's father, Pietro, came to the United States by himself in 1909 from Malvaglio, a northern Italian town near Milan. He temporarily left his wife and two kids in Italy, but eventually settled in St. Louis and had his family follow soon after. While in St. Louis, Pietro had three more children – the second one was Yogi. [Read More]

Book Reviews: Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi

by Mariama Bah, age 18 and Haliah Berkowitz, age 14

Review by Mariama Bah:

Many people’s first interactions with Iran were through school or the news, but mine was through Persepolis, an autobiographical graphic novel written and illustrated by Marjane Satrapi. The book follows Satrapi and her family as they navigate life in Iran after the Islamic Revolution in 1979.

I read this book in 2023 as a member of Simpson Street Free Press’ summer book club. Before we got our hands on the books, we discussed Persian culture, Iran, and Islam. As a Muslim woman, I knew about Islam, but hadn’t learned much about the other topics. With my love for learning combined with my interest in the art style, I was excited to read the book. I believe that too often we learn about events from perspectives that can’t give us a different means of understanding. So, getting to learn about the Iranian Revolution through an autobiography piqued my curiosity. [Read More]

The Vikings Used Ships to Prepare for the Afterlife

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 10

Vikings not only used their boats for living and traveling, but also for preparing the dead. Much like Egyptians buried mummies in pyramids, Vikings, at times, entombed the dead in their ships.

The Vikings were people who explored the world using boats. A ship called the Oseberg ship was discovered in Norway in 1904. Experts reassembled the ship, finishing their work by 1926. It was in very good shape, even though it was used and made about 1,100 years before it was found. It was entirely made of oak wood, while the paddles were made of pine wood. The boat was unique due to the carvings on its stern and bow.

The Oseberg ship had a length of 70 feet and a width of 17 feet. The area of the ship was a surprising 1,190 square feet for only two people. It had very large oars. Viking ships could go very fast with sails due to their shape. The ships had great durability. [Read More]

Marquette and Joliet’s Bold River Expedition in 1673

by Mahalia Pearson, age 13

Jacques Marquette was an explorer in the mid-1600s. Marquette was born in Loan France, on June 1, 1637. At the age of 17 he joined the Society of Jesus.

Marquette studied and taught at a Jesuit college 12 years before he was assigned to a mission. In 1666, Marquette was assigned to be a missionary to the Americas. He made his first stop in Quebec, Canada. During the time Marquette was in Canada, he learned six different Native American dialects. In 1668 he was sent on more missions deeper into the western Great Lakes region.

Marquette had a friend named Louis Joliet. Joliet was a French-Canadian explorer and fur trader. Marquette and his friend were chosen to lead an expedition to explore where the Mississippi River ended. For this expedition the two friends were given five men and two canoes. The Native Americans called the river “Messipi,” which means, “The Great Water.” [Read More]

When Badgers Came to Wisconsin

by Oliver Zink, age 14

Wisconsin is known for its farming industry, but its roots are in mining. In the early 19th century, there was a lead-mining boom in the Midwest. This brought miners from various backgrounds to Wisconsin to seek their fortunes. Many dug shallow holes in steep hills for shelter, earning them the nickname Badger, which eventually became the state's mascot.

The existence of lead in the Wisconsin area was known by Native Americans for hundreds of years. When Europeans first explored the North American frontier, they traded for lead and eventually bought the locations of the mines. Later, this became a pattern. During Westward Expansion, wherever the U.S. military needed materials, they seized the local mines.

The lead boom started in the 1820s. Miners came from Missouri, which experienced a similar lead boom years earlier. For most men during the lead-boom era, mining was more promising than either farming or the fur trade. With the hope of quick and easy money, 4,000 miners moved to northern Illinois and southwest Wisconsin. As mining communities started to pop up and grow, shops and other industries followed. [Read More]

When O’Keeffe’s World Went Dark, She Still Saw Art

by Edwin Torres, age 13

Georgia Totto O’Keeffe is known as one of the most famous and remarkable artists of the 20th century. Throughout her life, O’Keeffe explored various artistic styles.

O’Keeffe was born on November 15, 1887, on a farm near Sun Prairie, Wisconsin. She was the second of seven children. O’Keeffe and her sisters took art lessons with a local watercolor painter. In 1905, when O’Keeffe graduated from high school, she already had plans of being an artist. She studied art at the Art Institute of Chicago, but her studies were interrupted when she fell ill from typhoid fever.

After her recovery, she took summer classes at the University of Virginia and also studied at the Art Students League in New York. O’Keeffe was constantly seeking ways to express herself, and she was open to various artistic styles, including abstract art, which she explored while teaching art in South Carolina and West Texas. [Read More]

The World’s Oldest Mummies Are Not in Egypt

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 9

When you think of mummies, you probably picture an Egyptian pharaoh wrapped in strips of cloth. It might surprise you to learn that the world’s oldest mummies are actually thousands of years older and found thousands of miles away.

The Chinchorro mummies of modern-day Chile were preserved more than 7,000 years ago, and are still being found to this day. The Chinchorro people began mummifying and preparing the dead for the afterlife in a harsh environment, with the driest place in the world located in Northern Chile or the Pacific coast of South America.

The Chinchorro inhabited the bays of the harsh Atacama Desert from around 5000 BC to 1500 BC. They developed the most unique techniques for mummification around 5000 BC. [Read More]

When the U.S. and Mexico Went to War

by Gerard Sanchez, age 10

Today, Mexico and the United States of America are neighbors; however, 180 years ago, they were at war.

The two countries fought over the territory between the Rio Grande and the Nueces River. Mexico declared that the border was 100 miles to the east, but the U.S. did not respect the boundary and instead claimed that Texas ended at the Rio Grande.

Texas became a state in 1845. That same year, President James K. Polk sent soldiers to the contested zone to protect Texas. When the American troops reached the Rio Grande, they started fighting with Mexican troops near Palo Alto. Five days later, on May 8, 1846, the U.S. declared war on Mexico. [Read More]

The Mother of the Blues Who Sang Her Truth

by Mahalia Pearson, age 14

Ma Rainey, also known as Gertrude Malissa Nix Pidgett, was an African American songwriter and musician who was born on April 26, 1886, in Columbus, Georgia.

Ma Rainey started singing at a young age and began performing as a teenager. She later made her debut in the band Bunch of Blackberries. She traveled and performed in tent shows, honky-tonks, and carnivals. While Ma performed, she met her husband, Will Rainey, also known as Pa Rainey.

Will Rainey was a comedian, singer, and dancer. He and Ma Rainey married in 1904. They created an act together, leading them to tour with several African American minstrel troupes and vaudeville groups. Ma Rainey later divorced her husband of 12 years. She then began her show, “Madame Gertrude Ma Rainey and Her Georgia Smart Set.” [Read More]

Is The Queen Mary Haunted?

by Leo Wilson, age 11

The RMS Queen Mary is a ship with a storied past that was built in 1934 by The Cunard-White Star Line, the same company that made the Titanic. It was an elegant and large cruise ship that was permanently docked in 1967, after years of decreased profits, partly due to the rising popularity of air travel. Ghost stories and claims of paranormal activity have given The Queen Mary its reputation as one of the most haunted ships in the world.

In Long Beach, California, where it is docked alone, it has had an estimated 50 million visitors since its first voyage in 1936. Including distinguished guests, such as The Duke and Duchess of Windsor and Winston Churchill. The Queen Mary's life as a cruise ship did not last long, due to it being used to transport thousands of soldiers to the front lines during World War II. Today, The Queen Mary is not only a historical landmark but serves as a hotel and entertainment venue.

The Queen Mary has had a haunted history for a long time. There have been at least 49 recorded deaths on the ship. In 1966 there was a reported ghost sighting from a woman who claimed to have seen a figure of a man standing at the end of her bed in room B340. Room B340 is the most infamous room aboard the Queen Mary. The room has been closed to the public but is currently open for those brave enough to book a stay. [Read More]

The Climb on Mount Denali that Claimed Seven Lives

by Atisse Robbins, age 14

Mount Denali, also known as “The Great One,” is a mountain located in Alaska. It is 20,320 ft tall. The first group reached the summit in 1913.

In 1967, a group of men decided to climb the mountain. A group from Colorado consisting of four members was planning to make the trip; however, before they even made it to the mountain, one of the members got into a car accident, so the group was reduced to only three people. There was another group that planned to climb Mount Denali on the same day as the Colorado group; their group name was the Wilcox expedition. This group consisted of eight members, Joe Wilcox being the leader.

To climb the mountain, you need at least four people. Since the Colorado group had lost a member, park rangers decided that both groups should merge and make the trip up the mountain together. They all agreed, took a picture, grabbed all their gear, and began to climb. With the strenuous climb, some members of the group developed altitude sickness. As a result, some people decided to wait and rest for the day and continue to reach the summit the following day. [Read More]

Wisconsin's Dairy History from Wheat Fields to Cheese

by Dayanara Flores, age 17

Wisconsin is known as “America's Dairyland” but few people know that during the mid-1800s Wisconsin was the third leading wheat-producing state. They chose to produce in this area because it was an easy task that required little attention. Motorized harvesting increased these yields, and Wisconsin's wheat crops helped Milwaukee become a big grain carrier.

In the 1860s, small insects known as chinch bugs began to eat up wheat crops. As farmers' wheat was eaten by chinch bugs, they also faced falling prices. Farmers tried to expand wheat farming to Minnesota and the Dakotas but the bugs kept eating, so farmers realized they needed to develop a different solution. New York became famous for its butter and cheese and was the number one producer in the United States.

New Yorkers convinced local farmers to invest in cattle that would be better for milking. One of these New Yorkers built Wisconsin's first neighborhood cheese factory in Fond Du Lac. The UW-Madison promoted their dairying through scientific research. William A. Henry was one of the first professors to teach agriculture in the 1800s. [Read More]

The Puzzle with 42 Quintillion Possibilities

by Dellany Onyango, age 9

There are 42 quintillion ways to move a Rubik’s Cube to solve it! This colorful, brain-teasing puzzle has challenged and fascinated people worldwide for decades. It was invented by a teacher who used his creativity and love of geometry to design the cube as a teaching tool.

The puzzle was made by Erno Rubik, a Hungarian architect professor and puzzler who created his first puzzle in 1974. The original puzzle was a 3D cube made up of 27 smaller “cubies.” These cubies were made out of wood and were originally part of craft materials used in Rubik's classroom. Rubik experimented with rubber bands and wooden blocks to create a geometric puzzle. In the process, he unknowingly invented what would become an iconic brain teaser, originally called the Magic Cube.

The classic 3x3 Rubik’s Cube is made up of 27 smaller cube pieces, or “cubies,” arranged around a hidden central core. Each of its six sides is a different color. When scrambled, the colors are jumbled and scattered across the cube, making it look mismatched. The goal is to twist and rotate the layers until each side of the cube shows a single, solid color again. [Read More]

The Story Behind St. Patrick and His Famous Holiday

by Marco Flores, age 10

St. Patrick’s Day is a holiday celebrated primarily in Ireland and the U.S. It honors St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland.

St. Patrick was born in Roman Britain in the late 4th or early 5th century. When he was 16 years old, he was kidnapped by Irish raiders and taken to Ireland, where he was forced to work as a shepherd. During his time in captivity, Patrick turned to Christianity for comfort and later escaped back to Britain. After becoming a priest, he returned to Ireland to spread Christianity and is credited with converting many of its residents.

It is believed that St. Patrick’s Day is celebrated on March 17, the date of his death. While St. Patrick was a real historical figure, many traditions, and myths have become associated with the holiday over time. For example, people often associate four-leaf clovers with St. Patrick’s Day, but legend says Patrick used a three-leaf clover, or shamrock, as a symbol of the Holy Trinity in his teachings. [Read More]

Aztecs Believed Our World Is the Fifth in a Series of Suns

by John Agbo, age 14

Like all ancient civilizations, the Aztecs developed a distinct worldview rooted in their cultural beliefs and practices. They created elaborate myths to explain the natural phenomena around them, forming a framework for understanding their environment and existence. One of the most notable myths is the Legend of the Fifth Sun, which narrates the creation of the world and the heavens through a cosmic battle between gods and elemental forces. This struggle ultimately led to the establishment of the current era.

The Aztecs believed in a series of suns, with the Fifth Sun existing from the period of Spanish colonization to the modern era. They held that there were four suns before the current one and that the world had been destroyed several times under the reign of previous deities. Each god ascended to become the Sun by jumping into a sacrificial fire created by the old fire god, Huehuetéotl.

The first sun was ruled by Tezcatlipoca, also known as the Four-Tiger Sun or Black Tezcatlipoca, but his sun was too small, meaning there wasn’t enough light. His dominance lasted for 676 years, corresponding to 13 cycles of 52 years in the Mesoamerican calendar, until his brother, Quetzalcoatl, knocked him out of the sky with a stick. [Read More]

Vel Phillips Becomes First Black Woman Honored with Statue Outside a State Capitol

by Will DeFour, age 15

Last summer, a statue of Vel Phillips was unveiled outside the Wisconsin state Capitol. Phillips was a pioneer who championed legislation to advocate for civil rights and in many cases, was the first woman of color to hold many offices in Wisconsin.

Phillips was born in the early 1920s on the south side of Milwaukee. After graduating high school, she earned a national scholarship to Howard University. In 1951, she became the first woman of color to graduate from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Law School. She then went on to become the first alderwoman in Milwaukee. While she served, Phillips advocated for housing policies to end discrimination against minorities. She joined the NAACP, participated in many protests, and organized a 200-day demonstration to push for fair housing legislation.

In 1971, Phillips was appointed a judge in Milwaukee County, the first African American appointed to this role in Wisconsin. Only seven years later, she was elected secretary of state in Wisconsin, the first woman of color to hold that position. [Read More]

Shipwreck from 1893 Found in Lake Michigan

by Oliver Zink, age 14

On September 30, 1898, the schooner Margaret A. Muir sank a few miles from the entrance to Algom Harbor on Wisconsin's Lake Michigan coast in 50 feet of water during a fierce gale.

It was undisturbed for more than a century, despite hundreds of fishing boats going back and forth during the fishing season. Historian Brendon Baillod found the ship on May 12, 2024, along with his team Robert Jaeck and Kevin Culling. They declared the ship a significant archaeological discovery.

The wreck earned the nickname “filet of schooner” due to the way it opened up, with the deck separating and the sides splaying apart. This unique exposure provides insight into the architectural construction details of 19th-century Great Lakes wooden schooners. [Read More]

The Toledo War Gave Michigan the Upper Peninsula Instead of Wisconsin

by Max Moreno, age 12

The Toledo War was fought between Michigan and Ohio, and is the reason that the Upper Peninsula of Michigan does not belong to Wisconsin.

The Toledo War began in 1835 when Ohio and Michigan both claimed a narrow strip of land along their shared border known as the Toledo Strip. Despite being called a "war," the conflict was more of a political dispute than an actual battle.

At the time, Ohio was already a U.S. state, while Michigan was still a territory applying for statehood. The issue stemmed from vague boundary definitions in early legislation and inaccurate maps, which left the border between Ohio and Michigan open to interpretation. Each side moved to enforce its own claim. [Read More]

Wisconsin State Flag Tells the Story of Land, Labor, and Loyalty

by Iliyan Hoskins, age 12

There are many questions regarding the Wisconsin state flag. For instance, when and why was it made? Who are the men on it? Why is the flag blue? What does it represent?

Wisconsin received its flag in 1863 during the Civil War, as soldiers needed a way to recognize their regiment and rally under a shared symbol. Wisconsin was one of the first states to adopt a blue flag to match the color of the Union Army's flags, reinforcing loyalty to the Union cause.

The two men on the flag represent Wisconsin’s land and water. One is a sailor, who would work on boats on the Great Lakes. The other is a yeoman, a person who works on farmland. The sailor holds a rope, and the yeoman carries a pickaxe. [Read More]

Movie Review: The Six Triple Eight

by Ayelen Flores, age 15

It is not often that a war movie tells the stories of the unsung, behind-the-scenes heroes who make our military function. “The Six Triple Eight” does exactly that. “The Six Triple Eight” is a new movie about hidden struggles during WWII. It premiered on December 20th, 2024. It is based on true events and is available for streaming on Netflix.

Getting mail to soldiers abroad was one of the challenges the U.S. Army faced during WWII. The mail motivated soldiers by giving them a connection to the country they were fighting for. Charity Adams was a U.S. Army officer in Europe who eventually served as the commanding officer of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion, “Six Triple Eight.” The battalion was charged with a big load of roughly 17 million pieces of mail coming from soldiers and their families. It had six months to sort, organize, and deliver the mail. Surprisingly, it took only three months to get the mail to its designated place. The movie shows what it was like being a woman, specifically a Black woman, in the military during that time, as well as the struggles of one woman in the battalion whose partner died in the war.

“The Six Triple Eight” is an important historical record recognizing the story of many women from the unit. Director Tyler Perry was initially inspired by his friendship with Lena Derriecott King, who was a former battalion member. Before Lena died at the age of 100 in January 2024, Perry told her he had an idea for a movie telling her story. King told Perry about her life and everything that she remembered from being a member of the battalion. Perry wrote a script inspired by her experiences and showed King an incomplete version of the film. He sat at her bedside and talked her through it. Ebony Obsidian, who played Lena in the movie, was also able to talk to King and learn more about her story. Obsidian was honored to show everyone King’s story, sharing that King taught her "that no matter what you go through, you can still rise.” Unfortunately, King died before seeing the movie, but she had a lot of faith in Perry’s unfinished script. She was grateful to let others know about such a life-changing and personal event. [Read More]

How the Mayans and Aztecs Imagined the Birth of the World

by John Agbo, age 14

The Aztecs and Mayans shared numerous mythological figures. For instance, both cultures worshipped a feathered serpent as a central mediator between the heavens and the earth. The Mayans recognized Kukulkan as the god of cycles, encompassing life and death, while the Aztecs viewed Quetzalcoatl as a cosmic entity who ruled over the sun during one of the five eras, or “suns,” in their creation story.

Kukulkan played a vital role in Mayan mythology. He was revered as a god of rain, wind, and storms, symbolizing renewal, like a snake shedding its skin. For the Mayans, time was cyclical and occurred in intervals known as Baktuns, signifying one of the most important concepts in their culture. Kukulkan embodies the eternal cycle of death and rebirth. Priests and kings often claimed descent from this god to reinforce their power.

The Mayans built temples throughout Mesoamerica, with one at Chichen Itza honoring Kukulkan. This temple stands as a testament to the Mayans’ understanding of astronomy, architecture, and mathematics. The Temple of Kukulkan aligns with the sun’s movements, creating a spectacular event during the spring and fall equinoxes. When the sun hits the pyramid at just the right angle, it casts a shadow down the northern stairway, resembling a serpent slithering down to the base. [Read More]

Before the NBA, Black Athletes Shined in the Black Fives Era

by Owen Ayite-Atayi, age 17

In the era of segregation, before Black and white athletes played on the same basketball teams, Black athletes took the spot and made it into a cultural sensation. Although the invention of basketball evolved, teams were initially called “fives” to reference the starting five players on the court and were racially segregated.

From 1904, when basketball caught the eye of African American players, Black teams were often called “colored quints,” “Negro cagers,” or “black fives.” The game of basketball remained segregated until the 1950s. The period between 1904 and the racial integration of the National Basketball League and the National Basketball Association, was known as the Black Fives Era. During this time, dozens of all-African-American teams were able to flourish and blossom into dynamic franchises.

Teams sponsored by churches, “Colored” YMCA businesses, athletic and social clubs, and newspapers had very few places to play. Due to segregation, athletic clubs and gymnasiums were whites-only. When the phonograph, an instrument for reproducing sounds, arose in the 1900s, Black music like jazz, blues, and ragtime became outrageously popular. This paved the way for more dance halls and ballrooms, which were welcoming to Black people. This gave the Black Fives a place to play and belong. It also fused music and basketball. The music would feature the top Black musicians, and after games, dancing took place. These venues were organized by African American sports promoters. [Read More]

How Harley-Davidson Became a Motorcycle Legend

by Dellany Onyango, age 9

The Harley-Davidson Motor Company was one of the first successful American motorcycle companies. This Wisconsin-based company began in a small wooden shed which would become one of the most notorious motorcycle brands.

The company started up in 1903 and was incorporated soon after in 1907. It was founded in Milwaukee, Wisconsin by William S. Harley and Arthur Davidson. They were 21 and 20 years old when they sold their first motorcycle. The bike got its nickname “hog” after a Harley-Davidson racing team took a mascot pig on a victory lap after winning a race. The Harley bikes got their “bad-boy” image after an event in 1947. A biker gang terrorized a small town in Hollister, California, and a photograph was taken and published alongside an article in a magazine that captured the country’s attention. Thus, Harley’s got their “rebellious bad-boy” reputation.

The V-twin engine makes the classic loud “rrrm” sound when you rev the engine to start it up. These iconic bikes are known for how reliable and easy to repair they are. The Harley-Davidson Motor Company has made its mark throughout history. During World War II, it supplied thousands of motorcycles for the nation’s armed forces. [Read More]

The Story Behind the Keyboard That's Used Every Day

by Dellany Onyango age, 9

In the late 19th century, the novel invention of the QWERTY keyboard changed the way of typing for decades to come. As the use of typewriters grew in popularity by journalists, poets, and other writers, the QWERTY keyboard became the standard. It is now the most common keyboard layout used, including on cell phones.

In the 1860s, Christopher Sholes, Samuel W. Soule, and Carlos Glidden, collaboratively created and patented the first commercially successful manual typewriter. This typewriter came with the QWERTY keyboard as the default. The keyboard was named after the first six letters on the top row of the keyboard which are q, w, e, r, t, y. The patent to this typewriter was then sold to a company by the name of E. Remington & Sons. This mechanical machine became commonly known as the Remington Typewriter.

There have been several attempts to create alternative keyboard layouts. The Dvorak keyboard was made in the 1930’s by Professor August Dvorak and gained some public popularity. However, it could not stand up to the widespread QWERTY keyboard. [Read More]

How the Fifth Amendment Protects the People

by Theodore Morrison, age 17

“We the people of the United States,” is how the United States Constitution begins. One key part the Constitution that protects citizens is the Fifth Amendment.

The Constitution establishes the powers and restrictions of federal and state governments, and through numerous amendments, the unalienable rights intended to establish a free and prosperous society. Among those unalienable rights, the Fifth Amendment immortalizes the rights against self-incrimination, seizure of property without just compensation, the denial of due process, and double jeopardy.

The first part of the clause is the right against double jeopardy, which is the subjugation of a person to the same criminal accusation on multiple occasions. This is central to the idea that the American citizen is entitled to some assurance that they will not be harassed by government overreach. The right guarantees that if the government levies a charge against you and you are found innocent, they cannot charge you again with that same crime. [Read More]

The Cool History of Ice Harvesting in Wisconsin

by Malak Al-Quaraishi, age 14

Many years ago, people depended on ice to keep their produce and other items cold. They used what was essentially a modern-day refrigerator, but it was called an ice box. An ice box was a wooden or metal cabinet that held large blocks of ice to keep food cool before electric refrigerators became common.

Harvesting ice blocks was a dangerous and physically demanding process. Workers would travel to lakes across Wisconsin during the winter to cut large blocks of ice, sometimes weighing up to 300–500 pounds, and haul them away for storage in ice houses insulated with sawdust. This allowed the ice to stay frozen well into the summer. Although the job was risky, it paid well and helped many workers support their families.

Thanks to its many lakes and long, cold winters, Wisconsin became a key state for ice harvesting. The thick, clean ice from northern Wisconsin was especially valued. Ice was essential for transporting perishable goods like cheese, meat, milk, and beer, all important to Wisconsin’s economy. Breweries, especially in Milwaukee, were major consumers of ice. Companies like Pabst, Schlitz, and Miller relied heavily on ice to store and ship beer. [Read More]

Scientists See Traces of Ancient Mayan City in Southern Mexico Using Laser-sensor Technology

by Ayelen Flores, age 14

Scientists have discovered an ancient Mayan city using laser-sensor technology. Although the jungle was dense near the city, the technology was surprisingly able to detect the mysterious ruins.

The Mayan civilization existed in tropical lands in what is now Guatemala, Honduras, and southern Mexico. The Mayan people were a powerful group that influenced other civilizations alongside their people in the sixth century. The Mayans were known for their fascinating agricultural work, pottery, writing, and mathematics. The civilization slowly started fading away, and the great stone cities were abandoned by A.D. 900. The Mayans left many impressive architectural feats and artwork.

Using Laser Imaging Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) data collected in 2013, archaeologists spotted what looked like a city in the dense jungle in southern Mexico earlier this year. The scientists were able to identify structures that look like temples, platforms, housing units, and agricultural terraces. Scientists said the different structures could date back to A.D. 250 and 900 with this data. Soon after, it was determined to be a lost city and was named after a nearby lagoon called Valeriana. [Read More]

The Infamous Milwaukee Bridge Wars

by Theodore Morrison, age 17

Can you remember the last time you drove across a bridge? You probably cannot. Today, there are many bridges, so you tend to forget most of them. But in Wisconsin history, there was a time when bridges often caused significant conflict. In one famous case, battles were fought over bridges.

Milwaukee is Wisconsin's largest city. And in 1845, the stage was set for the so-called Milwaukee Bridge War. That’s when the cities of Kilbourntown and Walker’s Point were created alongside the pre-existing town of Juneautown, which was founded in 1834. The three towns, all located on the Milwaukee River, were vying for economic dominance in the region.

Conflict was sparked when the two competing settlements of Juneautown and Kilbourntown incorporated in what is now modern-day Milwaukee. Both towns were engaged in an economic stand-off started by the founder of Kilbourntown. As he attempted to advertise Juneautown as a less developed town despite the city holding several significant institutions. [Read More]

The Civilian Conservation Corps Transformed Wisconsin’s Landscape

by Daniel Li, age 17

In 1933 during the Great Depression, President Roosevelt launched the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) as part of his transformative New Deal program. This initiative provided much-needed jobs for young men while addressing critical needs across the United States. Over its nine-year lifespan, the CCC impacted both the natural landscape and the lives of millions of Americans, including those at Camp 657 in Wisconsin.

The CCC’s primary mission was to employ men to engage in conservation projects, reforestation, and construction of parks and public infrastructure. Camps were structured in a military format, with officers overseeing daily life. While this environment was consistent across the nation, regional characteristics shaped each camp’s culture, such as segregated camps in the South. By 1942, when the CCC was disbanded, over three million men had participated, and more than 4,000 camps had been established nationwide. The CCC’s legacy in Wisconsin includes Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest, Devil’s Lake State Park, and Wyalusing State Park.

Camp 657, initially established in Fort Sheridan, Illinois, relocated to northern Wisconsin in 1933, eventually settling near Otter Lake in Elcho. Over its first four years, Camp 657 enrollees completed multiple tasks: constructing 83 miles of truck trails, 12 miles of fire breaks, 23 vehicular bridges, 235 miles of telephone lines, and multiple fire lookout towers and cabins. They also planted 1,379 acres of trees, stocked streams and ponds with fish, and improved forestlands and wildlife conditions. [Read More]

How Ancient Egyptians Made Mummies

by Marco Flores, age 10

The mummification process was a type of ritual performed in ancient Egypt to preserve a deceased body for the afterlife. While many may have heard about mummies, few know about their significance in ancient Egyptian culture or the process of mummification.

Mummies are deceased Egyptians covered in wrappings and put in a yellow or red shroud. Many types of mummies existed in ancient Egypt, each with its purpose. For instance, Ushabti was a mummy that was tasked with things to do in the afterlife. The Egyptians would also mummify dogs, cats, food, and birds for them to experience the afterlife. The food was preserved in this fashion with the idea that people could enjoy it in the afterlife – it was known as a “virtual mummy.”

If one were to be an emperor, king, or ruler, they would be buried in the Valley of the Kings. There, they were buried in shrines and glass cases covered in ancient art. Today, the Valley of the Kings is located at the Great Pyramids of Egypt. [Read More]

Frank Lloyd Wright Made Wisconsin a Place of Beautiful Architecture

by Ayelen Flores, age 14

Frank Lloyd Wright remains one of the most beloved architects of all time. Throughout his life, he created many remarkable architectural works, most of which are located in Wisconsin.

Wright was born on June 8, 1867, in Richland Center, Wisconsin, to parents William Carey Wright, a musician, and his wife, Anna Lloyd Jones, a teacher. He and his family traveled a lot until 1878, when they settled in Madison, Wisconsin. His parents divorced in 1885. Wright‘s childhood was difficult due to financial problems, but he always tried to help. At 18, Wright worked for Allan Conover, a civil engineering professor at UW-Madison. While working and studying there, he developed a passion for architecture. He even claimed to have designed UW-Madison’s iconic Science Hall, however, this claim has been debunked. After graduating, Wright worked as a draftsman under the renowned architect Louis Sullivan in Chicago.

One of Wright’s early works while under Sullivan was creating his own house, where he lived with his wife, Cathrine Lee Tobin, and had six children. The house was located in the Chicago suburb of Oak Park. Wright incorporated many geometric shapes and played with empty spaces in the house, which showed his genuine passion for design. Even today, it is unclear whether Wright quit or was fired, but leaving the firm in 1893 gave him freedom and independence. [Read More]

The AAGPBL Changed the Game for Women in Baseball

by Max Moreno, age 12

In 1943, the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) began in Wisconsin, with over 500 women participating. World War II influenced the AAGPBL. At the time, baseball was America's pastime and people were worried that the sport would come to a halt due to men being drafted to fight in the war.

Women were already playing a similar sport: softball. This sport was created in 1887 for indoor play and had the same rules as baseball, just with a smaller field, a bigger ball, and an underhand pitch. During the war, many people turned to softball as their main form of entertainment. Many thought of softball as a “women's sport” and baseball as a “men’s sport” but the AAGPBL proved otherwise.

The AAGPBL consisted of six teams, with three of them being established in Wisconsin: the Milwaukee Chicks, the Kenosha Comets, and the Racine Belles. The AAGPBL Chicks played for Milwaukee, but fans referred to the team as the “Brewerettes” after the city’s Minor League Baseball team, the Brewers. Player salaries were $40 to $80 per week compared to the average salary of $45 per week. Players were also required to wear skirts with shorts underneath in an attempt to portray a feminine image. Skirts didn't prevent players from sliding into bases, and many players would get badly scraped knees, or “strawberries” as these injuries were commonly known. [Read More]

Understanding Human Sacrifices in Ancient Aztec Culture

by Marco Flores, age 10

In ancient Aztec and Chancay times, human sacrifice was a significant religious ritual consisting of various steps. These ceremonies were conducted as offerings to the gods, ensuring good harvests, victory in battle, and cosmic balance.

Aztec sacrifices were performed by priests at temples such as the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlán. A common method of sacrifice involved laying the individual on a sacrificial stone while four assistants held down their arms and legs. The high priest would then use an obsidian or flint knife to cut open the victim’s chest and remove the still-beating heart. The heart would be placed in a sacred vessel, while the body was sometimes rolled down the temple steps as an offering to the gods. In some instances, the limbs of the sacrificed individual were distributed among warriors or nobles for ritualistic cannibalism, a practice believed to honor the gods.

Another common method of Aztec sacrifice was performed using a Tecpatl, a ceremonial knife. Some records suggest that certain prisoners of war or criminals were stabbed with the knife before having their hearts removed. However, contrary to popular belief, the Aztecs did not typically sacrifice people for committing crimes. Most sacrificial victims were captured warriors from enemy civilizations or willing participants chosen for their honor in religious ceremonies. [Read More]

How the Franz Josef Glacier Was Formed in New Zealand

by Lina Al Quarishi, age 10

The Franz Joseph Glacier is seven miles long and located in New Zealand. The national park has alpine mountains, which are high, snowy mountains. How did this region develop into what it is today?

More than 500 million years ago, New Zealand was a part of a supercontinent known as Gondwana, which was located 35 degrees north of the equator. Over time, this supercontinent drifted south towards the South Pole. This initiated the glaciation of different parts of Gondwana and the regions that soon became Australia and New Zealand. Gondwana continued to move throughout millions of years, taking New Zealand northward to warmer zones where its ice slowly disappeared. However, some glaciers and snowy regions remained in New Zealand and were later discovered by explorers.

The Tasman Glacier took the name of the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who was sent on expeditions in 1642. Captain Cook, who arrived in 1769, noted the existence of the Franz Josef glacier, but a century passed until geologist Julius Von Haast explored it. [Read More]

The History Behind Wisconsin’s First People and Statehood

by Siwoo Park, age 12

Wisconsin, the state known for cheese-making and cranberries, has a much more complex history than agriculture. From tribal civilization to its current residents, Wisconsin has experienced many developments.

Before European settlers discovered Wisconsin, Paleo-Indians, the ancestors of modern tribes, inhabited the area around 12,000 years ago. Their existence is confirmed by effigy mounds, which are burial mounds shaped like animals or figures often representing the decedent’s connection to the creature. About 20 mounds survive in Madison today.

During the 1600s, Europeans who reached the region known as Wisconsin met various Native Americans. They encountered the Fox, Ho-Chunk, Sauk, Illinois, Miami, Mascouten, Ojibwa, Menominee, Kickapoo, Potawatomi, Huron, Ottawa, and Santee Sioux. Throughout history, these tribes would be reduced to the Ojibwas, Menominee, Ho-Chunk, and Santee Sioux as wars and political reasons drove them away. During the 1820s, four other Native American tribes traveled to Wisconsin. They were the Stockbridge and Munsee bands of Mohicans, the Brotherton, and the Oneida. [Read More]

New Theory Studies How Ice Age Hunters Used Clovis Point Technology

by John Agbo, age 14

Archaeologists have discovered intriguing evidence regarding hunting civilizations from 13,000 years ago during the Ice Age. The discovery showcased the hunting techniques of the Clovis people, offering a captivating glimpse into their resourceful ways of survival. Early humans, known as hominids, often hunted large prey like mammoths by surrounding them and attacking them with spears. However, research indicates this method was inefficient, as even a powerful thrust with a spear would likely only pierce a mammoth’s thick skin superficially.

Remnants of tools and weapons suggest that Ice Age hunters used ten-foot jagged stone pikes, a symbol of skill and survival in the dance of predator and prey. Pike hunting involves using a long pole or spear placed on the ground to skewer approaching animals, effectively immobilizing them for capture.

The alternative option for typical spear hunting was the Clovis point, a jagged stone spearhead with carefully cut edges. The Clovis people utilized them in North America. The craftsmanship of these weapons was extremely time-consuming, which motivated them not to lose, break, or let a wounded animal escape with one. Additionally, the tools had to be meticulously chipped to maximize their effectiveness and success, further emphasizing the importance of not losing them. [Read More]

Why the Great Wall Is More Than Just a Wall

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 9

The Great Wall of China is one of the most remarkable wonders of the world. It is a very well-known tourist attraction and a national icon in China.

The Great Wall was built in 221 B.C. and is most known for its tremendous length. The total length of this wall is approximately 21,000 kilometers long and 15-30 feet tall.

The initial purpose of the wall was to protect people from invasions. There are castle-like stands that intersect with the wall, which serve as watch and signal towers. These towers allowed soldiers to look out for potential threats and dangers. If you thought that the Great Wall of China was just one big wall, you are wrong. The wall consists of multiple walls that intersect with one another. During the campaign against the Xiongnu, a tribe from the area of Mongolia, the Chinese strengthened the wall due to conflict with the tribe. [Read More]

Queen Anne Boleyn's Scandal that Changed English History

by Siwoo Park, age 12

Anne Boleyn was perhaps the best-known of Henry VIII’s wives. She was the reason why Henry sought to break away from the Catholic Church to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Anne and Henry’s marriage was a scandal that profoundly impacted English history.

Anne Boleyn's early life is somewhat unclear, but historians believe she was born around 1501 at Blickling Hall in Norfolk. Anne’s family held respectable positions: her mother, Elizabeth Howard, was a descendant of King Edward I, and her father, Thomas Boleyn Sr., was a prominent courtier. She had two siblings who survived to adulthood, Mary and George Boleyn. Anne was educated at the courts of Margaret of Austria and the French court, where she learned the manners and etiquette that would later captivate Henry VIII.

After serving Mary Tudor, Henry VIII’s sister, and Queen Claude in France, Anne returned to England in 1521. Anne and her sister, Mary, became ladies-in-waiting to Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII’s first wife. In 1522, Anne caught Henry VIII’s attention at a court masque with her foreign French fashion and refined manners. However, she was betrothed to a nobleman named Henry Percy. At Henry VIII’s request, Cardinal Wolsey, the king’s advisor, annulled their engagement, and Percy was forced into an arranged marriage by his family. [Read More]

How the Printing Press Sparked Literacy and Changed History

by Chelsea Zheng, age 12

The printing press is a device that allows for the efficient creation of books, pamphlets, and newspapers in large quantities. Its invention revolutionized the way information was shared and transformed society by making printed materials more accessible.

Although the identity of the first inventor remains unclear, the earliest known printed materials originated in China, where woodblock printing was developed around the 9th century. Later, in the 11th century, Bi Sheng invented movable type printing in China. However, in 15th-century Europe, Johannes Gutenberg improved upon these earlier designs and created a mechanical movable-type printing press. Gutenberg’s invention made printing faster, more efficient, and more affordable. Within a century of its creation, the printing press had spread across Europe and laid the groundwork for mass communication.

The printing press had a profound impact on literacy and education. Before its invention, books were rare and expensive, limited to wealthy individuals and religious institutions. After the printing press became widespread, books became more affordable, allowing a larger portion of the population to read and learn. This expansion of literacy helped foster societal advancement and new intellectual movements. [Read More]

The 72 Counties that Make Up Wisconsin

by Estefania Garcia-Fox, age 13

Many Wisconsin counties were named after historical figures, such as John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States.

Wisconsin used to be British land; however, it was transferred to American control in 1783, and in 1848 became a part of the United States.

States are divided into counties. Each county has a county seat where the county government offices are located. There are 72 counties in Wisconsin. In this state, there are county officials that are elected by voters for a four-year term. County officials work to ensure that counties continue to prosper and remain safe for their communities. County officials include the sheriff, county executive, district attorney, register of deeds, and treasurer. [Read More]

Name of New U.S. Navy Vessel Honors the City of Beloit, Wisconsin

by Ayelen Flores, age 14

A recently completed ship will be the third U.S. naval vessel named after a Wisconsin city. The USS Beloit, a new freedom-class littoral combat ship, honors that city’s history of diesel engines built for the military.

Beloit is a city in southern Wisconsin with roughly 36,000 people, who are very hardworking and proud of their accomplishments. All of the engines built there have been made by the manufacturer Fairbanks Morse Defense (FMD). FMD has around 250 workers on the east bank of the Rock River.

The engines built there are made by the manufacturer Fairbanks Morse Defense (FMD). [Read More]

Hylton Castle Reveals Its Hidden Medieval Past

by Riya Adhikari, age 13

The Hylton Castle was a magnificent castle that dates back to the late Middle Ages. It is believed that a wealthy royal family lived there. Today, the castle lies in ruins and its worn-down state offers glimpses into its stored history.

The Hylton Castle was huge. Back when the castle was first built, size implied power and authority. Archaeologists state that the castle had a dining hall, kitchen, tall towers, private rooms, and more. As an addition to the castle, there was a huge courtyard and a gatehouse that could have been a private residence for the lord and his family. Additionally, other parts of the courtyard would likely contain a space for communal feasting and other sources of entertainment.

The Hylton castle was likely constructed by hand, reflecting the craftsmanship of its time. Stone roof tiles were constructed on the main hall, overlapping one another and forming a stable and weather-resistant structure. Floor tiles of the structure were larger and thicker than other tiles used in the English construction of churches, castles, and palaces. These tiles had no distinct patterns and were a single-color glaze. [Read More]

Wisconsin’s Famous Joe “Unser Choe” Hauser Set Baseball Home Run Records

by Max Moreno, age 12

Joe Hauser was born and raised in Wisconsin and played baseball against legendary players, such as Babe Ruth and Ty Cobb. Babe Ruth was known as the home-run king in the major leagues. However, things were different for Hauser, who excelled in the minor leagues.

Hauser started his minor league career in 1918. He played on the same team that Babe Ruth started on when he was in the minors. Hauser played in the highest level of the minor leagues in Milwaukee, and earned the name “Unser Choe" since fans would chant “das ist unser choe,’’ which in German translates to “this is our Joe.” Hauser would then go on to play in the majors for the Philadelphia Athletics for five seasons. In 1924, Hauser played his best season in the major leagues, with 27 home runs second only to Ruth.

His success in the major leagues was cut short in April 1925 when he snapped his right kneecap, which needed surgery. At the time, surgeons used silver wire to mend his kneecap back together. In 1929, he went back to the minors and played for the Baltimore Orioles International minor league team. He hit 63 home runs and was the first professional player to hit 60 or more home runs in a season. Despite the injuries, he proved himself in 1933. While playing for the Minneapolis Millers he hit 69 home runs and remained the only player to hit 60 or more twice in his career until Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa did so in 1998 and 1999, respectively. [Read More]

Forest Hill Cemetery Is a Place of Rich History and Remembrance

by Ian Kosharek, age 12

Forest Hill Cemetery is astonishing with its decades of history. It is located in Madison, Wisconsin's west side on Speedway Road, near West High School. This cemetery was founded in January 1857 when the city of Madison purchased the land from John and Maia Wright for $10,000 in bonds.

Many esteemed people are buried at Forest Hill Cemetery. There are several notable scientists, including Harry Steenbock, who discovered Vitamin D, John Bardeen, who won Nobel Prizes for discovering superconductivity and inventing the transistor, and Edward Birge who invented the study of limnology, which UW-Madison is known for. There are also many politicians laid to rest here, including former U.S. Senator Bob LaFollette and his family, William Freeman Vilas who was Secretary of the Interior, and Levi Baker Vilas, the fourth mayor of Madison. There are also many soldiers from both sides of the Civil War buried at Forest Hill Cemetery.

Before it was a public cemetery, Native Americans used the land as high burial grounds. They also built mounds on this land in the late woodland period [650 to 1200 A.D] one being in the shape of a goose located in section 15 on the southeast side of the cemetery. The head of this mound was destroyed when the Illinois Central Railroad was built in the 1880s. Surprisingly, the rest of this mound still stands! [Read More]

The Duchess Who Became Queen of Two Countries

by Cataleya Garcia Fox, age 12

Eleanor of Aquitaine was one of the most powerful and influential rulers in medieval history, serving as both Queen of France and England.

Born in 1122, Eleanor was the Duchess of Aquitaine, a wealthy region in southwestern France. After her father died in 1137, at the age of 15, Eleanor became one of the most sought-after brides in Europe. King Louis VI of France arranged for her to marry his son, Prince Louis. Shortly after their wedding on July 25, 1137, Louis VI died, and Eleanor and her husband became King Louis VII and Queen of France.

Eleanor and Louis VII had two daughters, Marie and Alix, but their marriage began falling apart due to their inability to produce a male heir. This, along with Eleanor’s independent nature, led to their marriage being annulled in March 1152. The annulment returned Eleanor’s vast lands in Aquitaine to her control. [Read More]

How Zombies Became Halloween’s Most Iconic Monsters

by Will DeFour, age 15

With Halloween just around the corner, many monsters can be seen around Madison, in neighborhoods, yards, and windows. One of these classic horrors is the zombie, a walking corpse whose bite turns the living undead. Where did this myth come from, and how has this beast changed over the years?

The zombie's origins can be traced to West Africa and the stories told by enslaved people brought to Haiti. According to Haitian folklore, a zombie is a soulless body reanimated by a sorcerer's spell, often controlled to serve the sorcerer without a will of its own. This myth later became associated with the Haitian Vodou religion, a syncretic blend of West African, indigenous, and Roman Catholic traditions. The zombie myth found its way to the United States, inspiring numerous books and movies.

In 1872, the zombie was defined in the U.S. as “a phantom or ghost, often heard about in the southern states and among servants.” Decades later, author Zora Neale Hurston researched Haitian customs and included the zombie myth in her 1938 book Tell My Horse. She defined a zombie as “the living dead, people who are resurrected but without their souls. They can take orders and are never supposed to be tired, doing whatever their master says.” This definition highlights the zombie’s connection to themes of slavery and control in Caribbean folklore. [Read More]

Why Is Halloween Celebrated on October 31st?

by Elim Eyobed, age 13

On October 31st, people in the United States celebrate Halloween. During this holiday, people walk through neighborhoods knocking on doors for treats, an activity commonly known as trick-or-treating. This holiday has roots that go back more than 2,000 years, while the trick-or-treating tradition as we know it today has been around for about a century.

Halloween originated from a Celtic festival called Samhain, which took place in what is now Ireland, parts of the United Kingdom, and northern France. The Samhain festival marked the end of summer and the start of harvest and winter. To honor this event, Druids lit bonfires where people burned crops and sacrificed animals to Celtic gods. The Celts wore costumes made of various animals as part of the tradition. These costumes were meant to ward off spirits, as it was believed that during Samhain, the boundary between the living and the dead became thin, allowing spirits to cross over.

In the eighth century, Pope Gregory III recognized November 1st as the designated date to honor all saints. This eventually led to All Saints' Day, which incorporated some traditions of Samhain. The day after, November 2nd, became All Souls Day, a time for Christians to remember the deceased. The night before All Saints' Day became known as All-Hallows Eve, which later evolved into Halloween. [Read More]

Football’s European Origins Make It One of It’s Most Popular Sports

by Edwin Torres, age 13

Football, also referred to as soccer, is the world’s most popular sport. Just a ball, field, and goal markers are enough to play this fun game.

Evidence of ball games played with feet can be linked back to the third century BC in Rome and ancient Greece. Since its establishment, the sport has spread across different parts of the world. The sport’s family consists of American football, rugby, and Gaelic football.

Modern soccer comes from the United Kingdom, where villages competed in violent matches over vast areas. At that time, rules were not established, therefore, one could play however they wanted. In 1863, the first soccer rules were established. [Read More]

The Story Behind The Statue of Liberty: A French Gift to America

by Marco Flores, age 10

The Statue of Liberty has appeared in countless forms of media since it was first unveiled in the United States in 1886. Surprisingly, the statue does not originate from the U.S. it was a gift from France to symbolize friendship and shared ideals of freedom. The project was originally conceived by French political thinker Édouard René de Laboulaye, who wanted to celebrate America’s independence and liberty. He enlisted the sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who brought the vision to life.

Frédéric Bartholdi was inspired by the concept of liberty, drawing on the famous painting Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix. Bartholdi collaborated with the engineer Gustave Eiffel, who designed the statue’s internal iron support structure, while Bartholdi focused on the external design. Interestingly, Bartholdi had initially planned to create a lighthouse for the Suez Canal in Egypt in the form of a towering figure holding a torch, but he adapted this idea for the Statue of Liberty.

The statue was completed in France in 1884, and on July 4 of that year, it was symbolically presented as a gift from France to the U.S. However, the statue didn’t arrive in New York until the following year, and it was formally unveiled on October 28, 1886. Today, the Statue of Liberty stands as a world-famous symbol of freedom, welcoming over 4 million visitors each year. [Read More]

How Coco Chanel Transformed Women’s Style Forever

by Sedona Afeworki, age 16

Gabrielle Bonheur Chanel, famously known as “Coco Chanel,” was an international businesswoman and founder of the iconic Chanel brand, known for revolutionizing women’s fashion with a variety of products including clothing and perfume.

Chanel was born in 1883 in Saumur, France, though she sometimes told people she was born in 1893 in Auvergne. After her mother passed away, her father abandoned her and her siblings, leading Chanel to spend much of her youth in a convent orphanage. Originally, she didn’t plan on working in fashion; at age 17, she became a cabaret singer, performing at places like La Rotonde. She soon became involved with wealthy men, including Étienne Balsan and Arthur “Boy” Capel, who supported her interest in fashion.

In 1910, Chanel opened her first hat shop, Chanel Modes, in Paris, using Balsan’s financial support. Her innovative designs and strong business skills soon made her brand a sensation. In 1926, she introduced her famous “little black dress,” making elegant fashion accessible to women. In 1921, she launched “Chanel No. 5,” the first designer fragrance, which became a worldwide success. [Read More]

The History of Corn From Ancient Mesoamerica to Today

by Edwin Torres, age 13

Corn is an ancient grain with an interesting history that most people have not heard about. Originating in Mesoamerica, specifically Mexico, corn is now widely enjoyed and produced across the world. However, only 40 percent of corn that is grown is consumed by people, while the remaining 60 percent is used as animal feed.

Modern corn as we know it did not exist 10,000 years ago. Instead, its ancestor was a wild grass called teosinte. Teosinte did not look like the corn we know today, but farmers in Mexico began the process of domestication around 9,000 years ago by selecting kernels to plant. While the history of corn is still debated, there is evidence showing that the domestication of corn began in the South Central region of Mexico.

For centuries, corn has been valued as an important crop for people. In fact, corn was so important that indigenous Mesoamericans even worshipped it and believed that it was a gift from the gods. One reason why corn was appreciated so much was that the crop was relatively easy to grow. This made corn an amazing crop for feeding the population and provided the leaders of indigenous civilizations with more power. [Read More]

The True Haunting Behind The Conjuring

by Atisse Robbins, age 13

Many may not realize that the well-known horror film The Conjuring is inspired by a true story. Set in 1971, The Conjuring follows the Perron family, parents Carolyn and Roger, and their daughters Andrea, Nancy, Christine, Cindy, and April, who moved into a large 12-bedroom house in Rhode Island. Shortly after moving in, the family began noticing strange occurrences. Items would go missing, sounds echoed through the house, and dirt mysteriously appeared on the kitchen floor. They even reported a foul smell like rotting flesh, and the father, Roger, claimed that a cold presence followed him whenever he entered the basement, even though the heater was working.

Some believe these activities were linked to a former resident, Bathsheba Sherman, rumored to have practiced witchcraft. Local legends claimed she might have cursed the house, although no solid evidence exists to suggest she was a Satanist or involved in a child’s death. Nevertheless, the family feared it was Bathsheba’s spirit haunting them.

To help, paranormal investigators Ed and Lorraine Warren, famous for their cases of haunting and demonic activity, visited the Perron home. The Warrens typically didn’t charge for investigations, instead earning a living from lectures and book sales. Lorraine once stated, “When there is no religion, it is terrifying,” explaining her belief that faith was a person’s best protection, regardless of specific beliefs. [Read More]

Vampire Origins: How 18th-Century Horror Shaped a Timeless Monster

by Will DeFour, age 15

Whether you play Dungeons & Dragons, go trick-or-treating, or watch Twilight, you've probably heard stories of pale figures who drink blood and hate garlic. These undead are called vampires and are a classic example of Gothic horror. Yet their history remains mostly unheard and is well worth learning.

The first known mention of a vampire figure dates back nearly 1,000 years to Eastern Europe, where it was called an “Upir.” The origins of this term are unclear, but it may have referred to an “evil spirit” or “witch,” appearing in the folklore of Slavic and Baltic regions. Due to the term’s murky origins and variations, historians have struggled to pinpoint the beginning of vampiric belief.

Though the concept of the vampire is ancient, the term “vampire” itself first appeared in 1725. At that time, Austro-Hungarian authorities heard strange stories from lands taken from the Ottoman Empire. They sent military investigators, who reported a case involving Petar Blagojević, a peasant from Kisiljevo, Serbia, whose exhumed body was staked and burned after villagers claimed he attacked them after death. [Read More]

What Is a Governor?

by Owen Ayite-Atayi, age 17

A governor oversees and carries out laws that are needed in their state. Governors don't get to write state laws, but they have other people in power to help with their decisions.

To become a governor in the state of Wisconsin, the minimum age requirement is 18, but this varies among other states. There are many powers when it comes to becoming a governor, such as legislative role, appointment powers, and clemency power. If a governor were to vacate their office, the lieutenant governor would take over. Every state except Oregon can impeach its governor.

Many governors, including Wisconsin governors, have the authority to pick state court judges. There are two important rules for governors in their relationship with state Legislatures. They are able to propose legislation and set policy priorities. And they are also entitled to announce and call legislative sessions. [Read More]

Vinnie Ream Hoxie: The Woman Who Sculpted Lincoln

by Allison Torres, age 15

The famous statue of Abraham Lincoln in Washington D.C. created by Vinnie Ream proved to society that women could create valuable art.

Ream was born in 1847 in Madison, Wisconsin, where she lived for ten years. Her family moved to Missouri, but later relocated to Washington D.C. during the Civil War. In 1863, Ream had a chance to visit Clark Mills’s studios and see multiple sculptures. Inspired by what she saw, she began sculpting. Ream recalled, “I felt at once that I, too, could model and, taking the clay, in a few hours I produced a medallion of an Indian chief’s head.”

She began sculpting busts of prominent men, including General George Armstrong Custer, Congressman Thaddeus Stevens, and New York editor Horace Greeley. Eventually, her friends helped arrange for her to sculpt a bust of President Lincoln. [Read More]

How the Bennett Law Sparked Debate in Wisconsin’s Schools

by John Agbo, age 13

The government designs laws with the right intentions, but sometimes those intentions can lead to bad policy. The Bennett Law is one such example.

In the mid-1800s, there was a large increase in German and Scandinavian immigrants from Europe to Wisconsin. They established schools in their native languages, so children could understand what they were learning in American schools, and maintain their cultural heritage. The state government was first introduced to this law by Michael J. Bennett, an assemblyman from Iowa County. His extensions were to establish public or private education for children across the state. However, the public's sentiment escalated and this became controversial. It stated that children must attend a public or private school, but that the students must be taught all subjects, including U.S. history, in English only. The bill was signed into law on April 17, 1889, by Governor Hoard.

Few people had problems with mandatory school attendance, but the language requirement started a torrent of criticism. While some, like Horace Rublee, editor of the Milwaukee Sentinel, believed that the law was an effective way to enforce the English language, others were unable to understand English and opposed the English language requirement provisions of the law. The Lutheran and Catholic German churches were also opposed to the law; they wanted their children to attend the school of their choice. Other ethnic groups, such as the Irish and Scandinavians shared similar sentiments and felt as if the law was a personal attack on their native language. Wisconsin Governor William Dempster Hoard was shocked, and insisted that children of immigrants must learn English to enable them to be “useful citizens.” During the 1890 election, the Republican Party came out in favor of the law. Democrats were opposed to it. The Christian and Lutheran churches aligned themselves with the Democrats. The Scandinavian, Irish, and German, alike, voted Democratic party or withheld their vote. In 1891, the Bennett Law was repealed. [Read More]

The Rise and Fall of Cleopatra, Egypt’s Last Pharaoh

by Estefania Garcia-Fox, age 13

Cleopatra was one of the last rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty after her father died in 51 BC. She was known to be one of the most famous pharaohs of this period for transitioning Ptolemaic Egypt to Roman Egypt and for holding a great deal of power.

Cleopatra Thea Philopator was born in Alexandria, Egypt, in January 69 BC. She was the second oldest of four. During Cleopatra's early childhood, she was brought up in the palace of Alexandria in Egypt and was well educated. By adulthood, she was well-versed in many languages.

When Cleopatra’s dad died in 51 BC, he passed his throne on to his son Ptolemy XIII and his daughter Cleopatra VII, and they became co-rulers of Egypt. Soon after claiming the throne, they married each other. [Read More]

Helen Keller Overcoming Deafness and Blindness to Inspire the World

by Abigail Gezae, age 12

Helen Keller became blind and deaf at the young age of 19 months due to an illness. She was born on a small farm in Tuscumbia, Alabama. Arthur Keller was Helen’s father, and his young second wife, Kate Adams, was her mother.

At six months of age, Helen was advanced in her learning and was beginning to speak. Helen was doing very well until she became sick with a mysterious illness, which the doctors thought was German measles. Today, doctors believe Helen’s childhood illness was likely scarlet fever or meningitis. This illness caused Helen to lose her sense of sight and hearing. Over time, Helen forgot her memories of sight and sound, growing used to silence and darkness. Her family developed a way to communicate with her, and Helen created more than 50 signs to express her feelings and frustrations, which were growing.

At the age of seven, Helen was sent to the Perkins Institute for the Blind in Boston, Massachusetts, where she met a young teacher named Anne Mansfield Sullivan. Anne was later sent to work with Helen at her home. Helen’s initial frustrations and attitudes made her a difficult student, but Anne was persistent. After setting some boundaries, they were able to work together. Anne began teaching Helen the names of objects by spelling them out. Anne would write letters on Helen’s palm to connect these patterns with the objects they described. When Anne spelled the word “water,” Helen experienced a breakthrough, recalling her early memories of language, which helped her develop her communication skills. [Read More]

How Protests Led to the Bombing of UW's Sterling Hall

by Siheon Park, age 11

During the 1960s, many University of Wisconsin-Madison students were protesting the Vietnam War. Police broke up a student protest by using mace and clubs. The protest was about the Dow Chemical Company that produced a deadly chemical called Napalm for the U.S. military, but later on, it would lead to one of the most mysterious cases of domestic terrorism in Wisconsin history.

On Aug, 24, 1970, a group of men bombed Sterling Hall of UW-Madison, which was home to the Army Math Research Center, killing physicist Robert Fassnacht, and injuring four other researchers. The bombers were Karl and Dwight Armstrong, Leo Burt, and David Fine. The called themselves “The New Years Gang”.

The bombing of Sterling Hall wasn’t their only attack. Earlier in the year on January 1st, 1970, Karl and Dwight Armstrong attempted to bomb the Badger Army Ammunition Plant in Baraboo, but the bomb failed to go off. Later on, they were involved in bombing the ROTC offices and US draft board in the spring. [Read More]

The True Story of Vikings Beyond Raiding and Warfare

by Haliah Berkowitz, age 13

When people hear of Vikings, they often think of mass murderers, killers, and savages. In reality, Vikings were peaceful people much of the time. They valued protection and self-preservation, and they fought only when necessary. They also pursued various hobbies, crafted stunning boats, and settled in some of the most beautiful lands we cherish today.

The Viking Age lasted from around 800 to 1050 AD. Their homeland was primarily Scandinavia, including modern-day Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, but they also traveled to and settled in other parts of Europe. While we often group Vikings by their homelands—Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish—they shared a common culture and often moved between these regions.

In most historical depictions, Vikings are shown as ruthless raiders. While this is partially true, they also enjoyed peaceful activities like farming, fishing, and boatbuilding. They were master boatbuilders, known especially for their longships, which were designed for speed and easy navigation. These ships were double-ended, allowing for quick reversals and greater efficiency in difficult weather conditions, such as ice storms or downpours. [Read More]

The WWII Japanese Pilot Who Attacked Oregon

by Max Moreno, age 12

Nobuo Fujita was a Japanese naval aviator who bombed forests in Oregon with the goal of setting back the U.S. by burning valuable timber and forcing the country to divert military resources to fight fires. He was also the first Axis pilot to bomb the contiguous U.S.

It all started on April 18, 1942, when the U.S. launched the Doolittle Raid. The attack targeted several cities in Japan in retaliation for Pearl Harbor. The raid was named after the lead pilot, Lieutenant Colonel James H. Doolittle. The mission involved 16 B-25 Mitchell bomber planes that took off from the USS Hornet, located about 650 miles off the coast of Japan. The bombers attacked Tokyo, Kobe, Nagoya, and Yokohama, but because of the long distances involved, most of them ran out of fuel and had to either crash-land in China or ditch in the sea. Although the raid caused little physical damage, it significantly boosted U.S. morale. [Read More]

What Happened to the Aral Sea?

by Dulce Vazquez, age 15

The Aral Sea was once the fourth-largest lake in the world but is now practically gone. This sea is located in Central Asia, between southern Kazakhstan and northern Uzbekistan.

The Aral Sea is actually a saltwater lake, as it has no outlet to the ocean. It was formed by water flowing from various rivers and glacial melt. As one of the largest lakes, the Aral provided water and fish, which were crucial to the region. It supported farming, the fishing industry, and even tourism in the area, attracting people from surrounding regions.

However, the Soviet Union initiated a major water diversion project in the 1960s to irrigate cotton fields. Water from the rivers feeding the Aral Sea had been diverted for irrigation by the Soviet Union since the 1920s, but the 1960s saw the beginning of large-scale redirection. The Aral Sea, once deep blue and teeming with fish, had shrunk to half its original size by the end of the 1960s. The decline continued, and by 1987, the lake split into the Northern Aral Sea in Kazakhstan and the Southern Aral Sea in Uzbekistan. [Read More]

Amelia Earhart Breaking Barriers in Aviation History

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

Amelia Earhart was the first female pilot to fly alone on transatlantic and transpacific flights. She is also known as a pioneer for women aviators.

Amelia was born on July 24, 1897, in Atchison, Kansas. Amelia’s childhood was hard due to many problems. Her dad, Edwin, had alcoholism, and she and her sister, Meriel, lived with their grandparents for 12 years.

During World War I, Amelia went to Toronto with her sister. She got a job as a nursing assistant to care for hurt soldiers. After the war ended, she trained to become a doctor, but her passion was piloting. [Read More]

Madam C.J. Walker's Legacy in Beauty and Empowerment

by Moore Vang, age 15

A pioneer in African-American history, Madam C.J. Walker has had a lasting

impact on the beauty industry and African-American history in the U.S. during the late 1800s to early 1900s. She is most well known for creating hair products for Black women at a time when they did not have access to specific products for their hair. Walker created a successful business for herself and helped provide for others throughout her career.

Madam, born Sarah Breedlove, was born on Dec 23, 1867, in Delta, Louisiana. She was born free and grew up as a sharecropper alongside her family. Her parents died when she was young, so she lived with her older sister until she turned 14. She ran away and married a man named Moses McWilliams after her sister’s husband became too abusive towards her. Sarah gave birth before the age of 17 to her daughter Lelia who was her only child. Unexpectedly, Moses passed away only three years after Lelia’s birth, leaving Madam as a widowed mother. [Read More]

The Virgin Queen Who Defined England's Golden Age

by Siwoo Park, age 12

Queen Elizabeth I of Britain, also known as “The Virgin Queen,” was an impactful monarch who defeated the Spanish Armada, calmed theological conflicts, and used her power and status to help her people.

Elizabeth Tudor was born from a controversial marriage of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII on Sept. 7, 1533. Anne could only bear Elizabeth as Henry fell out of love with her. In 1535, Henry accused Anne of adultery, incest, and high treason, which led to her execution, two years after Elizabeth’s birth. Her step-brother Edward was born in a different marriage, and her ascension to the throne became risky as Edward was first in line to the throne. Her older Catholic step-sister, Mary I, disliked Elizabeth’s Protestant views.

Elizabeth was raised with tutors and private instructors during her childhood. She was a quick learner of language and the classics. She also excelled in horse riding, archery, dancing, and playing a keyboard instrument called virginals. [Read More]

Manitowoc's Submarines: Wisconsin's Key Contribution to Victory in WWII

by Max Moreno, age 11

A shipbuilding company in Wisconsin helped the U.S. defeat Japan in World War II. Charles C. West, the President of Manitowoc Shipbuilding Co., initially wanted to build destroyer ships under a Navy contract.

However, during the Great Depression, the Navy made their contracts unavailable due to the lack of funds. With the start of WWII, contracts became available again. West presented his idea of building destroyers to the Navy but was redirected by a Navy representative to build submarines instead. Despite their initial inexperience, West's 500 employees adapted to the challenge of building submarines. The shallow Manitowoc River made launching submarines difficult, but the company innovated a side-launch technique to fit the submarines in the narrow river. [Read More]

The Life of Catherine of Aragon

by Siwoo Park, age 12

Intelligent, stubborn, and wronged, Catherine of Aragon was Henry VIII's first wife and one of many influences that dramatically changed Henry's religious beliefs and perspective of marriage. She was an agent of both change and drama, as she was dragged into the matter of Henry VIII’s desires.

Catherine of Aragon was born on December 16, 1485, in Spain. She was the youngest daughter of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castille. As Isabella wished, all her children, including Catherine, were well-educated. Catherine studied Catholic literature to learn Latin and other modern languages.

When Catherine was a child, her parents wanted to ally with England, specifically Henry VII. Both monarchs arranged her marriage to the oldest son of Henry VII, Prince Arthur of Wales. In 1501, Catherine set sail to England alone at 15. [Read More]

The History Behind America's Iconic Monument

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

Mount Rushmore is a monument meant to represent democracy and memorialize U.S. Presidents who led the country at different times. The granite cliff, located in South Dakota, depicts former presidents: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln.

Initially, the designer and sculptor planned for the monument to include the leaders down to their waists, but that didn’t happen due to low funding, Gutzon Borglum’s death, and the onset of World War II. Instead, sculptors Gutzon Borglum and his son, Lincoln Borglum, focused on carving only the heads.

Borglum, born in Idaho in 1867, was a famous artist. Building Mount Rushmore was a dangerous job due to the height of the monument and the tools used. Borglum and Lincoln directed miners and masons, who ultimately used dynamite to remove large portions of rock. Despite the use of dynamite for the rough work, chisels were employed to carve the finer details of the presidents’ heads. [Read More]

The History and Meaning Behind Tarot Cards

by Marco Gonzales, age 9

Tarot is a special card deck used for fortune-telling, but that wasn’t always true. It originated in Italy during the 1440s, when a fifth suit of 21 cards called "trionfi" (triumphs) and a "fool" card were added to a typical four-suited pack of cards. Originally, tarot was used as a game called "tarocchi," not for divination.

The modern tarot deck is based on the Marseille Tarot, consisting of 78 cards split into two groups: the major and minor arcana. The major arcana has 22 cards known as trumps, while the minor arcana has 56 cards. A special card in the deck is the Fool, also known as "Il Matto" in Italian or "Le Mat" in French. [Read More]

The Life and Career of Harry Whitehorse

by Kaleab Afeworki, age 12

Harry Whitehorse was a famous artist born in Black River Falls, Wisconsin in 1927. He was born in a wigwam which is the Ho-Chunk’s traditional housing.

When Harry was young, he was a student at Tomah Indian Boarding School where teachers discovered his talent in oil painting and drawing. His skills and appreciation for art blossomed as he progressed in life.

When he served in the military for WWII, his love for art grew especially after visiting the great museums of the Orient and Europe. Artwork in these locations inspired Whitehorse to pursue a career as an artist. After the war, Whitehorse graduated from the Arthur Colt School of Fine Arts at UW-Madison where he studied oil painting. He also studied welding and metal fabrication from a local technical college. [Read More]

Anne Frank’s Story and the Diary that Survived the Holocaust

by Ayelen Flores Ruiz, age 14

Anne Frank is known for her famous diaries from the Holocaust which are filled with many emotional memories. Anne went into hiding, was captured, and died during WWII. She would not be known today if it were not for her father Otto Frank, who published Anne’s diary.

Before the tragic events of the holocaust, Anne lived a normal teenage life. She was born into an upper-class Jewish family in Frankfurt, Germany. When the Nazis started to implement their policies, Otto decided to leave Germany and move to Amsterdam. He started his business called the “Dutch Opekta Company.” During this time, as the Nazis became more aggressive, Jews were taken to concentration camps and treated inhumanely. The treatment from Nazis became so harsh that the Franks, alongside four other friends, went into hiding. They hid above Otto’s business, called the annexe, with the help of other friends. Two weeks before going into hiding, Anne turned 13, and was gifted her diary, “Kitty.” [Read More]

The Battle of Wisconsin Heights

by Ayelen Flores Ruiz, age 14

The Battle of Wisconsin Heights was the turning point of the Black Hawk War, an historic event that helped shape Wisconsin. It is also a very important battle because it was the last Indigenous battle to happen in the United States. A critical outcome of the battle was the decrease of the Native American population.

The “Black Hawk War'' refers to the conflict between the U.S. and Sauk American Indians. It was named after Black Hawk, the leader of the Sauk tribe, who led the Fox, Kickapoo and Ho-Chunk tribes in battle. The Battle of Wisconsin Heights began on July 21, 1832, when about 120 warriors and 700 non-combatants passed through what is now downtown Madison. The Sauk hiked over the landmarks now known as the Capitol Square, UW-Madison campus, and Lake Mendota. The Sauk starved throughout the duration of the journey, which led many to be caught or killed by soldiers. After reaching the south shore of the Wisconsin River, U.S. troops fired upon the Sauk who tried to cross the Wisconsin River while the sun was setting. The troops had been deployed in that same spot since morning. [Read More]

What's the Difference Between Karate and Kung Fu?

by Semaia Zerezghi, age 9

Two of the most well-known martial arts are Karate and Kung Fu. However, few people often know the difference between the two.

The most unique aspects and distinguishing features of Karate and Kung Fu lie in their differences in place of origin and overall fighting style. Additionally, they have different histories and practices.

Karate, which means "empty hands," is a martial art that requires no weapons and was developed in Okinawa, Japan. From its origin in Okinawa, Karate slowly grew and became a popular sport. It even debuted at the Tokyo, Japan, Olympic Games in 2020. Unfortunately, Karate was a sport for the Summer Olympics in Paris, France, 2024. [Read More]

How Speed Defined World War II Blitzkrieg Tactics

by Jafet Morales, age ll

After World War I, Germany developed a war tactic called blitzkrieg: a concentrated strategy combining power, speed, leadership, and coordination. This strategic approach helped the Nazis achieve early victories in World War II (WWII). Despite initial successes, Germany ultimately faced defeat after six years of fighting against the United Kingdom, the United States of America, the Soviet Union, and various resistance groups in occupied territories.

Surprise attacks and creating panic were crucial aspects of Nazi blitzkrieg tactics. Stuka dive bombers, recognizable for their menacing sirens, were deployed to divebomb enemy targets, instilling fear and disrupting defenses. However, the sirens' noise also slowed the aircraft, increasing vulnerability to enemy fire. Stukas were a formidable symbol of German air power during the early stages of WWII. [Read More]

Remembering Lou Conter: The Last Survivor of the USS Arizona in Pearl Harbor

by Max Moreno, age 11

The devastating events of Pearl Harbor took the lives of many. After the tragic event, survivors of the attack recounted their experiences. Unfortunately, the last living survivor of the attack passed away in early April 2024, at the age of 102.

Lou Conter was born in Ojibwe, Wisconsin, on Sept. 13, 1921, and was a quartermaster in the Navy. He was standing on the main deck of the USS Arizona battleship when Japanese planes flew over and bombed the ship. The explosion lifted the ship 30 feet out of the water as one million pounds of gunpowder stored below the ship were set off. Everything was on fire. “Guys were running out of the fire trying to jump over the sides and oil all over the sea was burning,’’ Conter said. In his autobiography “The Lou Conter Story”, Counter describes how he joined other survivors in battle and aided those that were injured. The sailors only abandoned ships if the senior surviving officer was certain that everyone alive was rescued. The USS Arizona wreckage still lies where it sank with remains of more than 900 sailors and Marines inside. [Read More]

Learn the History of Wisconsin's State Capitol Buildings

by Atisse Robbins, age 13

Did you know Wisconsin's first capitol was not built in Madison? The first capitol building, called the territorial capitol, was built by James Atchison in the town of Old Belmont. The capitol was built around 1836, using wooden pieces made in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Today, the territorial capitol remains in Lafayette County as one of Wisconsin's historical sites.

The first state capitol was built under the supervision of James D. Doty and John O'Neill. Construction started in 1837, but it was not finished until 1848. It was expected to cost $40,000, but after it was completed, the expenses were $60,000. [Read More]

Nellie Bly Trailblazed a New Kind of Investigative Journalism

by Cataleya Garcia Fox, age 11

Elizabeth Jane Cochran, also known as Nellie Bly, was a journalist and record-setter who traveled around the world.

She was born in Cochran’s Mills, Pennsylvania, on May 5, 1864. Bly grew up with her older brothers and parents, who loved her very much. Unfortunately, her father passed away when she was six. Her family needed money, which led her to work more often. Bly truly wanted to teach but had to drop out of school to provide for her family.

When Bly was 16, she started reading an article in the Pittsburgh newspaper that described women as helpless and pathetic. The article shocked and offended her. She was not afraid to show that she had her rights. Thus, Bly wrote a letter to the editor expressing her thoughts and detailing how the article was offensive to women. The editor was impressed by Bly’s confidence; in fact, he wrote back, offering her a job. [Read More]

King Tutankhamen’s Reign and His Unfinished Tomb

by Marco Flores, age 9

Tutankhamen ruled Egypt from 1333 - 1323 B.C. He became king when he was only nine years old. Tut’s father, Akhenaten, had tried to change the religious beliefs of the land. He wanted the Egyptians to worship only Aten, the god of the sun. However, the priests, elites, and common people did not approve of this change. Despite this, the people had to follow the orders and submit to these beliefs.

After Tut's father passed, Tut took the throne and repaired old temples and paid for new statues of gods. He even changed his name from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun after taking the throne.

Tut’s rule over Egypt did not last long. He died around the age of 19. Experts are uncertain about the cause of Tut’s death, but some speculate that it could have been due to a chariot crash, a mosquito bite, a bone illness, or some combination of these factors. After Tut’s death, the throne went to his advisor, Ay. [Read More]

From Fear to Fallout, The Manhattan Project and the Dawn of Nuclear Weapons

by Max Moreno, age 11

Amidst WWII, United States Authorities feared that Hitler would get his hands on nuclear weapons before them. As a result, President Roosevelt started the Manhattan Project to make the first atomic bomb.

Scientists figured out that if they split an atom in half, it released a lot of energy. On July 16, 1945, a scientist named Julius Robert Oppenheimer, also known as the father of the Atomic Bomb, and a few other scientists successfully made the first Atomic Bomb and named it Trinity. They set off the bomb in a remote desert in New Mexico. It had a blast force equivalent to 18,000 U.S. tons of TNT. Although Oppenheimer was happy that his creation was successful, he also feared its potential to create mass destruction.

By the time they made the bomb, Germany had already surrendered, and WWII was over in Europe, but Japan refused to surrender. President Truman decided to drop the bomb on Japan after estimating the U.S. would lose around 500,000 to 1 million soldiers if they tried to invade the country. Even though Oppenheimer disagreed he had to prove his loyalty to protect himself and his family. On Aug. 6, 1945, a bomb named Little Boy, which was around ten feet in length and weighed 10,000 pounds, was dropped by a B-29 bomber plane named Enola Gay on Hiroshima, Japan. [Read More]

Mary, Queen of Scots, Led a Life Full of Power, Love, and Betrayal

by Haliah Berkowitz, age 13

Many people know of Mary Queen of Scotland. However, few people know how she became queen, her adventures before and after the throne, and her many husbands and lovers.

Mary was born on December 8, 1542, a week before her father died. She became Queen of Scotland at six days old. It was previously agreed that she would wed the Prince of England. However, the Scots refused the arrangement. The English king sought to change their minds through force and power. A war broke out, and the battle was called the “Rough Wooing.”

In order to secure a Catholic alliance against Protestant England, Mary was sent to France to weather young French heir Dauphin. In 1561, the Dauphin died, still very young. Mary returned to Scotland as a widow. At this time, Scotland was going through a reformation due to a largely growing Protestant and lessening Catholic populace. [Read More]

Helena Rubinstein Built a Multimillion-Dollar Beauty Empire

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

Have you ever wondered how the makeup and cosmetic industry started? Are you curious to know who built a multimillion-dollar beauty industry? Helena Rubinstein was one of the first women to achieve this feat.

Helena Rubinstein was born on Christmas Day, December 25, 1870. She founded a global cosmetics empire, which began her journey of becoming one of the wealthiest women in the world. She used her wealth to create a product that would become one of the most successful on the planet. The foundation, a face cream, helped women's health. The brand was named after her and still exists to this day.

Helena always found business opportunities, especially when she visited some relatives in Australia. She discovered that women's skin was damaged and drier in hot weather. She combined her cream with a family formula that improved women's skin, leading her to be even more successful. [Read More]

Genghis Khan and the Rise of the Mongol Empire

by Marco Flores, age 9

The largest land empire was none other than the Mongol Empire. The empire stretched from Hungary to Korea and had more than 100,000,000 people living within the empire. They lived as nomadic tribes in a region that is now known as modern day Mongolia.

During the early 13th century, Temujin, a warlord, united the Mongol tribes. The Mongols warriors were fierce and had great skills for riding horses and archery. Temujin was given the name Genghis Khan for his great leadership.

In 1209, Genghis Khan attacked Xixia in northern China. In 1211, He got involved in the Jin Dynasty And turned on them. In 1223, the Mongol Empire expanded westward, conquering the Turkish Muslim Shaddom of Khwarizm in Persia. The Mongol were able to overcome the Turkic people, which were then recruited to the Mongol armies. Genghis Khan died in 1227 after a campaign in China and was succeeded by his son Ogodei. Under Ogodei, the empire continued to grow and expand. On the east, the Mongols conquered the Jin in 1234. Following this, they went to conquer the Southern Song, Caucasus, and Anatolia. In 1237 the Mongols even invaded Russia. [Read More]

Jackie Robinson, The Legend Who Changed Baseball

by Max Moreno, age 11

Jack Roosevelt Robinson, also known as Jackie Robinson was a legendary baseball player who broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball by becoming the first Black American to be in the MLB. However, Robinson wasn't just any ordinary baseball player.

Robinson was born on Jan. 31, 1919, and grew up in Cairo, Georgia. During high school he played many sports like baseball, basketball, football and track. He was also named the state's MVP in 1938. He attended UCLA, where he was the university's first student to win varsity letters in four sports. In the 1940s Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum, when they were attending UCLA and got married in 1946. However he had to drop out of UCLA just shy of graduation because he didn't have enough money. After moving to Honolulu Hawaii, Robinson played football for the semi-professional league but his season was cut short as the United States entered WWII. He was drafted to the war from 1942 to 1944 and served as a second lieutenant but never fought in combat. After he was discharged from the army, Robinson began to play baseball but at that time baseball was segregated and white and Black people played in different leagues. [Read More]

Göbekli Tepe Is the World's Oldest Temple

by Dayanara Flores Gonzalez, age 16

The Gobekli Tepe, also known as "Hill with a Navel" or "Potbelly Hill," is found ten miles northeast of Sanliurfa, an ancient city in southeastern Turkey. It was once named "Edessa" and is known as "The City of the Prophets."

Gobekli Tepe was discovered by a German archeologist named Klaus Schmidt, who formerly worked on a different ancient site that predated Gobekli Tepe. This site is the oldest man-made place of worship that has been discovered and dates back to 10,000 BCE.

These temples contained loft pillars with carved reliefs of different animals, such as snakes, foxes, and lions. Bones have been discovered on the site, which might have been used for ritual sacrifices and feasts. Gobekli Tepe was filled with numerous Neolithic flint tools, knives, choppers, and projectile points. [Read More]

Discovering Aztalan, Wisconsin's Hidden Ancient Civilization

by Aria, age 13

Aztalan was an ancient civilization located in what is now southern Wisconsin. It was discovered in the 1820s by American settlers, who named the hidden civilization but did not explore its origins.

Then came Increase A. Lapham, a natural scientist from Wisconsin. He revisited Aztalan in 1850 after the settlers. Lapham couldn't tell what used to be there. He studied and made detailed drawings of the area. These maps helped future researchers see what Aztalan was like before much of it was turned into farmland.

In 1919, Samuel Barrett, the founder of the Milwaukee Public Museum, did detailed research under the surface of Aztalan. At first, he thought the hills and bumps were effigy mounds from the Native Americans. Later, Barrett discovered that the Crawfish River cut a ravine through some of the land. He was excited because this revealed more tools, bones, and other artifacts. Later in his studies, he could tell that it was a very advanced civilization from things like structures or pottery. [Read More]

History Tells New Story of First Black American to Reach the North Pole

by Aubrey A Bevenue, age 12

Robert Peary is recognized as the first person to set foot on the North Pole. While he did not get a lot of recognition at the time, the African-American explorer, Matthew Henson was also ultimately recognized.

Matthew Henson was a skilled explorer. He was very experienced since he began his life on a merchant ship, starting when he was only 12 years old. He learned cartography and maritime astronomy while being at sea in the Arctic. He also spoke one of the main languages of people who lived near the Arctic, known as the Inuit language. Many people knew Henson as Miy Paliuk, which also translated to “Matthew, the kind one.” He also later had a son with an Inuit woman.

40 dogs pulled the sled that transported the explorers. The dogs ran for five days in freezing temperatures, and the men's faces became raw over time. Henson's accomplishments represented that African American people could also be successful. He wrote an autobiography in 1912, that talks about his success and challenges with his teammate and the journey. [Read More]

Machu Picchu Provides a Glimpse Into Past Inca Life

by Marco Gonzales, age 9

During the 20th century, Machu Picchu was rediscovered. At first, researchers thought it was Vilcabamba, a village where Incas were known to survive when the Spanish took over. However, this theory is now considered wrong; instead, Machu Picchu was likely an important ceremonial and religious site. Though the exact date of Machu's construction is unclear, it likely grew during the rapid expansion period of the Inca Empire at the end of the 15th century.

Machu Picchu was a site that contained gardens, terraces, ceremonial buildings, and palaces. Hundreds of steps connected the terraced gardens with aqueducts, fountains, and bath buildings throughout the land. Skeletons excavated from the site show that the female-male ratio was 10:1, which led to the belief that Machu Picchu was a site of sun worship and sanctuary for women, known as the Virgins of the Sun. Furthermore, there is evidence of a stone structure known as Intihuatana (Hitching Post of the Sun), which is thought to have been a device for calculating dates and solstices. [Read More]

Marilyn Monroe's Life of Fame Had a Tragic Behind-the-Scenes

by Siwoo Park, age 12

Marilyn Monroe was one of the most iconic film stars of the 1950s, and to this day, she remains a timeless image of beauty and style. Her rise to Hollywood fame was a “rags-to-riches” story, but was her reality all fame and glory?

Norma Jean Baker, later known as Marilyn Monroe, was born on June 1st, 1926. She was the daughter of Gladys Baker, who was a film editor for RKO Pictures. Unfortunately, Gladys’ mental state worsened after Norma’s birth, and she was transferred to a mental institution. During her childhood, Norma was put in orphanages and foster homes.

In 1941, Grace McKee Goddard, a friend of Gladys Baker, took Norma in as she could no longer afford to help her. Norma’s best alternative was to get married at the age of 16 to her 21-year-old neighbor. She married James Dougherty in 1942, but he joined the Merchant Marines and was sent to the South Pacific. [Read More]

Learn About Real Madrid's Century Long Soccer Success

by Juanes Palma, age 11

Real Madrid is a professional soccer team that has dominated European soccer at a level that exceeds many other teams. The complete name is Real Madrid Club de Futbol. They are also called Los Blancos, meaning “the whites” in English.

Real Madrid branched off from another team founded in 1897 in Madrid, Spain. It wasn't until 1902 that Real Madrid was officially founded. The team has had countless achievements since then. When the European Cup was first held in 1955-56, Real Madrid was the tournament’s first winner and continued to dominate the scene yearly.

On their team, they have had superstar players like Ferenc Puskas, Alfredo di Estefano, Paco Gento, Hector Rial, Miguel Muñoz, David Beckham, Luis Figo, Ronaldo, Zidane, Kaka’, and Cristiano Ronaldo, to name a few. They won five European Cups in a row. One of the teams they played against was Germany, winning 7-3 in 1960. [Read More]

Chief Buffalo: A Leader's Legacy in Preserving Ojibwe Rights

by Ian Kosharek age 11

Kechewaishke, known as Chief Buffalo, was the tribal leader of the Lake Superior Ojibwe people. He lived in La Pointe, which today is known as Madeline Island. Kechwaishke was born in 1759 and died in 1855.

Kechewaishke played a major role in signing treaties between the U.S. government and the Ojibwe tribe. He was well known for his work to conserve lands for Native Americans in Wisconsin, resisting attempts by the U.S. government to take away territories. Kechewaishke and the tribe peacefully protested against the U.S. government. His people valued and recognized his ability to speak publicly, and other Ojibwe tribes in the area began to recruit him as a spokesperson to negotiate treaties with the government.

Kechewaishke served as an authority figure who represented Ojibwe tribes in the Lake Superior region for the treaties of 1837 and 1842. In these treaties, he wrote letters describing his discontent with the United States government and its actions to gain control of native land to access lumber and other natural resources. At 93 years old, Kechewaishke even went to Washington, D.C., with other tribal leaders to speak about the injustices they faced by the government with President Millard Filmore. [Read More]

The History Football: A Rough and Thrilling U.S. Tradition

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

Football is a very interesting sport and fun to play! Lots of people like football and you might like playing football too. However, let me warn you, it is a very rough game. Football's first-ever game was in 1865. Rules for college football were made two years later and the very first NFL game was played in 1895.

When a match is played, it starts with a kickoff. The kickoff team kicks the football to the receiving team. One player from the receiving team catches the ball and must run it to the other side of the field – but here is where the game can get physical. The kickoff team can do anything they want. They can tackle, throw down, or push the ball carrier out of the sidelines. When the football goes out of the sidelines, it is called out of bounds.

The grassy football field is in the shape of a rectangle and is 120 yards long. For a team to score a touchdown, they must bring the football to their opponent’s endzone on the other side of the field, where they score six points. But while going down the field they have four tries, known as “downs”, to move the ball at least ten yards. Both offense and defense teams have 11 players on the field. [Read More]

How the Danish Resistance Fought Nazi Occupation with 'Illegal' Newspapers

by Allison Wallace, age 11

On April 9, 1940, Germany officially invaded and occupied Denmark, a small country in northern Europe that could not hold its own for very long. Most Danes opposed the occupation, so the Danish resistance was formed.

The Danish resistance comprised mostly young people who believed in Denmark's freedom. To update civilians on the resistance's latest news, multiple "illegal" newspapers were formed. One of the most well-known was De Frie-Danske, which translates to the Free Danes. These newspapers kept people up to date on what was going on, such as bombing Nazi supply trains and what was taking place in the war outside of Denmark. Since newspapers were deemed illegal, people often burned them after reading them. Danes kept a lot of other secrets, too. One way they accomplished this was through the use of code.

This was necessary because if the wrong people at the wrong time were to overhear them, there would be consequences. One example comes from a scene in the book Number the Stars by Lois Lowry, set during the Danish resistance. It has a character on the phone who uses cover words such as "going fishing" and "bringing cartons of cigarettes" to hide what they were actually doing, helping a Jewish character escape to Sweden by boat. [Read More]

The “Mataafa Blow” of 1905 was Lake Superior’s Greatest Storm

by Will DeFour, age 13

Lake Superior has sunk over 500 ships, claiming an estimated 30,000 lives. This lake's ability to sink ships is primarily attributed to the terrifying storms that terrorize its mountain-like waves. With hail storms, frigid waters, and winds reaching 70 miles an hour, it's no wonder this lake has taken so many lives. Some ships have become famous, such as the Edmund Fitzgerald, but one legendary storm sank almost 20 boats in just two days.

On November 27, 1905, this behemoth of a storm hit Lake Superior, caused by a low and high-pressure system violently hitting each other. Some captains foolishly tried to brave the storm. Those who attempted had to retreat to their harbors or sink thousands of feet below. Capt. Richard F. Humble of the Mataafa decided to brave the storm, not knowing that the sheer weight of this storm would soon humble him.

On the first day of the storm, after 12 hours of winds reaching hurricane speeds, Humble realized that there was no way he could face the weather. With snow falling so quickly that he could not see anything beyond the ship, the crew made their way closer to shore. The captain said, "The sea [Lake Superior] had become so large that it was running over our decks on both sides." Humble, with his back to the storm, decided to sail back to his home port as quickly as he could, unaware of the horrors that would await him there. [Read More]

How Local People Maintain the Great Mosque of Djenne in West Africa

by Dayanara Flores Gonzalez, age 16

Djenne is one of the oldest towns in sub-Saharan Africa. Dating back to 250 BC, it grew as an essential connection in the trans-Saharan gold trade and is described as the "Twin City" of ancient Timbuktu. Djenne's rich past is an integral part of Islamic history. It was a center for the spread of Islam in Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. Djenne continues to be a representative of Islamic architecture in sub-Saharan Africa.

Ancient architecture in West Africa uses Earth elaborately. It is home to an abundance of clay houses that blend into its natural surroundings and is the largest earthen mud structure in the world. Every spring, there is a festival that brings the entire town population together to celebrate faith and heritage. This festival is called the Crepissage or the "plastering."

The residents of Djenne work together every year to replaster the Great Mosque. Like the town's traditional clay homes, the mosque contains earthen mud walls coated with adobe plaster. The Sudano-Sahelian architecture, the original structure of the mosque, is believed to have been built around the 13th century. The mosque has been reconstructed at least twice. [Read More]

Learn About the Armored Giant of the Dinosaur World

by Ermiyas Abiy, age 8

The Ankylosaurus was an armored dinosaur species that became extinct long ago. It was the heaviest armored dinosaur in the world. Surprisingly, there were spikes in their skin, too! With its solid and durable plates, this herbivorous dinosaur was very hard to attack and quickly defended itself. Their plates served as protection against carnivores, and male Ankylosaurs also used them in self-defense against other males to win over their mates.

There were two main sub-species of the Ankylosaurus: nodosaurs and ankylosaurs. Ankylosaurs had wider spikes than the nodosaurs. Most Ankylosaurus were about the size of a military tank, weighed about 10,000 pounds, and were 30 feet long. Scientists believe that this enormous dinosaur could move three miles an hour, which is no faster than a human walking. This may come as a surprise, considering it was a dinosaur.

The Ankylosaurus had a cube-like rock at the end of its tail that could swing at any predator in danger. This tail could be turned with such force that it could break an ancient crocodile's bones with just one blow. These dinosaurs lived for a long time through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Ankylosaurus fossils have been found on almost every continent, including Antarctica, but not Africa! The Ankylosaurus went extinct 70 million to 66 million years ago. [Read More]

Wisconsin's Long History of Schools for the Blind and Deaf

by Dayanara Flores Gonzalez, age 16

Most students know how to read and write, but these tasks are difficult or even impossible for students who can’t see or hear. Parents in Wisconsin have sent their visually impaired children to special schools to be educated since the 1800s.

Before Wisconsin was a state, citizens had already noticed that educational facilities for visually and hearing impaired children needed to be provided. In 1843, Increase A. Lapham petitioned Congress to give funds to build schools for visually and hearing-impaired children, but nothing was done to make a change. The institution first began in Janesville when private citizens decided to create the first state school for impaired students. J.T. Axtell, a graduate of the Ohio Institution for the Blind, arranged a village meeting explaining several methods to teach children with defective vision.

Thirty residents gave $430 to start a school and purchase construction equipment. In October 1849, eight visually impaired students attended the first school for the impaired in the state, held in a private home. They asked the Legislature to help fund their school, and landmakers approved. The school tax-supported a budget of $2,500 to keep the school running in its building. [Read More]

The Milwaukee Bucks' Historic Victory Over the U.S.S.R

by Zayn Khalid, age 13

The United States and the Soviet National team (U.S.S.R.) had one of the biggest basketball rivalries of the '70s and '80s, especially when the U.S. lost to the U.S.S.R. in the 1972 Olympic finals. Then 15 years later, the Milwaukee Bucks played the U.S.S.R., and the game was not even close.

In 1987, the Milwaukee Bucks beat the U.S.S.R. at the McDonald’s Basketball Open. The final score of the game was 127-100 with the Bucks leading by 50 points at some parts of the game. The win was the second of a three-day tournament.

The Bucks still dominated with three of their better players out, including Sydney Moncrief, who had just received knee surgery, John Lucas, and Rickey Pierce. The U.S.S.R. was also missing players like their dominant 7 '2 center Arvidas Sabonis, due to an Achilles injury, and his backup, Aleksandr Belosteni, who suffered a sprained left ankle. [Read More]

Theater Review: “What the Constitution Means to Me”

By Camila Cruz, age 16

Forward Theater’s production of “What the Constitution Means to Me,” directed by Jen Uphoff Gray, captures audiences with its unique approach to considering the United States Constitution.

Leading actress Colleen Madden of American Players Theater portrays playwright and protagonist Heidi Schreck in this autobiographical play. Madden opens the play by introducing herself as Heidi Schreck and explaining her connection to the Constitution. As a high schooler, Schreck competed in constitutional speech and debate contests, for which she earned college scholarships. At age 15, Schreck loved the Constitution and its study, and she felt deeply inspired by this “living document.”

The first part of the play revolves around 50-year-old Schreck “recreating” one of her high school competitions. She acts like her polite and invigorated 15-year-old self. But she also pauses her reenactment to comment on how her understanding of amendments and clauses has deepened through time and experience. [Read More]

Teotihuacán, Mesoamerica’s City of Gods and Pyramids

by Edwin Torres, age 12

Teotihuacán was an ancient city in Modern-Day Mexico that was once known as Mesoamerica’s biggest city; the city was even bigger than Rome. Teotihuacán is an Aztec name meaning “place of the gods.” The population was around 50,000-100,000 people and the city covered an area over eight square miles. It was a sophisticated city, with religious buildings, wide streets, and private houses. According to local legend, it has been said that the sun and the moon were born in Teotihuacán. Not a lot is known about the daily life and customs of its people. However, we do know that the people of Teotihuacán praised certain gods. The rain god and the jaguar were two important figures for them. That was discovered by studying the engravings on religious temples. This civilization was advanced because of how carefully the city was built. They had a grid system that controlled the access to water.

Teotihuacán is dominated by two main pyramids: the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Sun. There are also two monumental public places at the heart of the city: the Citadel and the Great Compound. The Great Compound has two big platforms on several building stands. The Citadel played a religious role, approached by a stairway. The platform supported another pyramid, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, which rose to about seventy feet in the tiers made of richly carved sculptures. The stone serpent heads coming from the tiers appear alarming to this day.

Local supplies such as obsidian were important for trading in a chiefly agricultural economy. The high-quality murals suggest that the people from Teotihuacán were good at art, but evidence of human sacrifice during the years of decline points to a more barbaric side of their culture. Nobody knows how Teotihuacán came to an end, but somewhere around the eighth century, the city had been burned and sacked. [Read More]

Hanno the Navigator Explored Africa's Coast in Ancient Times

by Aissata Bah, age 14

Hanno the Navigator, from Tunisia, Africa, was one of the most important explorers of the 5th century B.C. His journey down the coast of Africa, took him thousands of miles, as he mapped new landmarks.

It’s believed Hanno was a king and seemed to be born into a family fascinated with science, geography, and exploration. From his home city of Carthage, he sailed south in search of new resources and trading opportunities, bringing cultural exchange, an important aspect of African history.

Hanno sailed to various places in Africa. He was best known for his naval exploration off the western coast of Africa. However, the only record of his long voyage is in a periplus (manuscript), a document listing ports, coastal landmarks, and approximate distances. The ships in this era weren’t meant for rigorous sailing as they were made out of wood and had a single sail. Also, considering the technology and knowledge of the time, compasses weren’t used in sailing and instead, people had to depend on the stars for navigation. [Read More]

Ancient Human Footprints Found in White Sands National Park Raise Questions

by Dani Garduno Martinez, age 11

Many people usually imagine mammoths, dinosaurs, and ancient beasts when considering fossils. However, a large majority of people miss an important category: human fossils. A recent discovery was made in White Sands National Park in New Mexico.

Many people down by the White Sands National Park have been buzzing with excitement because of the discovery of the human footprints. They were found and began to be studied in 2021. According to archaeologists, these fossils may be one of the oldest fossils that affirm humans originating from North America. Archeologists have been able to strengthen this argument since recent data shows that footprints have been there for 21,000 to 23,000 years ago. Yet some archeologists wonder if these fossils may really be from our ancestors from the Americas.

These human fossils may not be as old as they seem to be. Archeologists and scientists debate whether ancient seeds of aquatic plant life may have absorbed old carbon, making their original reported age invalid. In the process of finding fossils, they also found a big cluster of quartz grains and conifer pollen, which they used to confirm the original statement. [Read More]

Chichen Itza Blends Maya and Toltec Civilization

by Kimberly Rodriguez, age 11

In the tenth century AD, the Maya civilization lived in Chichen Itza. Located in Mexico, it was an important site to the Mayans and later to the Toltec warriors.

The Toltec warriors took over Chichen Itza from the Mayan people and made it a better version of their capital, Tula. The temple of the warriors contained countless carved objects like pieces of art, including jaguar and eagle motifs to represent the Toltec warriors. The Toltec warriors were a very strong civilization that conquered Teotihuacan. They ruled over Mexico from the mid-10th to mid-12th century AD

El Castillo is known as a pyramid temple dedicated to the ruler god Kukulcan. It is depicted as a feathered serpent deity and is carved along the staircase of the temple. Due to its detailed architecture, shadows of the staircase outline the serpent descending from the temple. The Mayans ' years cycle was also a very important part of their culture and they included it in the temple as well. [Read More]

The Ghost Ship from a Christmas Past

by Sandy Flores-Ruiz, age 18

On Nov. 22, 1912, the Rouse Simmons embarked on its journey from Michigan to Chicago, carrying Christmas trees. However, as families gathered at the port, their anticipation turned to concern when the vessel failed to arrive. The absence of the ship cast a shadow over the hope for Christmas that year. Once full of life, the boat was now on the bottom of the lake.

The Rouse Simmons was a 123-foot ship built in Milwaukee in 1868. Its voyage that day was one of its dozens of tree deliveries. Captain Herman Schuenemann, affectionately known as Captain Santa, led this family business with unparalleled generosity, ferrying Christmas joy from Michigan's Upper Peninsula to Chicago.

Before departure, the captain's daughter sensed that something was wrong. She pleaded with her father to delay or delegate the task, but his determination to bring Christmas prevailed. Despite the ship's unsuitability to weather the formidable storm of the decade—riddled with leaks, rat infestations, and confronting winds raging at 60-80 mph in winter—he assured her of a timely return. Many of his crew members refused to board, so it was estimated that 16 or 23 men were on board. [Read More]

The Journey of Pelé, Brazil's Soccer Maestro

by Edwin Torres, age 12

Pelé has been considered one of the best soccer players in the world by many. He has been the only player to win three World Cups. How did he get the title “Best Soccer Player”? Well, we are going to have to go all the way back to his early life in Brazil.

Pelé, whose actual name was Edson Arantes Do Nascimento, was born in Três Corações, Brazil, on October 23, 1940. Pelé grew up in poverty, and was really passionate about soccer. Since he could not afford a good ball to practice with, he kicked a rolled-up sock stuffed with rags around his neighborhood. The kids in his neighborhood called him “Pele” for no specific reason. He did not like it, but the name stuck to him.

When he was a young teenager, he joined a youth team managed by a former player from Brazil’s soccer team. At age 15, Pelé left his home to join the Santos professional club, which was five hours away. A few months after he joined the club, he scored the first goal of his professional soccer career. The Brazilian national team spotted his spectacular skills on the field, and recruited him to play for the team at the early age of 16. [Read More]

Ray Charles: A Soulful Genius and Pioneer of Musical Innovation

by Atisse Robbins, age 12

Ray Charles was born September 23, 1930, in Albany, Georgia. Ray was a highly influential American musician who left an amazing mark on the music industry.

He was known as “The Genius.” Charles revolutionized popular music by seamlessly blending various genres such as rhythm, blues, gospel, jazz, and country. His extraordinary talent as a singer, songwriter, and pianist, combined with his innovative approach to music, earned him a lasting legacy as one of the most celebrated and respected musicians of the 20th century.

Ray Charles was born into a modest family and began losing his sight due to glaucoma at a young age. Despite this challenge, he displayed an early affinity for music by teaching himself how to play the piano by ear. The sounds of jazz, blues, and gospel-influenced Ray. Charles honed his musical style which would later spread worldwide. In the 1940s, Charles embarked on his musical journey performing in the vibrant Florida music scene. Inspired by jazz pianists like Art Tatum and Nat King Cole, he soon ventured into rhythm and blues, infusing it with gospel to create a soulful and expressive sound. [Read More]

Muhammad Ali: The Unmatched Legacy of a Boxing Legend

by Iliyan Hoskins, age 10

Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr., more commonly known as Muhammad Ali, was a professional boxer who achieved many accomplishments, including an olympic gold medal in 1960 in Rome and a world heavyweight championship title. Throughout Ali’s career, he faced much success and controversy that would make him a household name.

On January 17, 1942, Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. was born in Louisville, Kentucky. He was named after his father Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr. Clay's mother was Odessa O’Grady Clay. Clay was born dyslexic, so it was hard for him to learn in school and it caused him some trouble throughout his life.

When Clay was 12, a thief stole his bike. Clay’s boxing coach, Joe E. Martin, and a police officer saw Clay upset over the incident and at that moment, Martin encouraged Clay to try boxing. [Read More]

The Grand Canyon's Last Mule Mail Route

by Dulce Vazquez, age 17

A few people living in the Grand Canyon still receive mail through mules. According to Daniel Piazza, the patron curator of philately at the Smithsonian National Postal Museum, this is most likely one of the last official mail through mule routes in the world.

Mail has been delivered by mule since 1930. Mules still carry mail to people who live in Supai, located in the Grand Canyon, outside of National Park Service jurisdiction. Supai is only accessible by hiking, taking a helicopter, rafting down the Colorado River, or riding a mule: Mule trips take three to five hours down and back up.

Mules carry a limit of 200 pounds at a time while delivering items. This is why only one or two mules are on route every day. Mail is not the only thing being delivered by mule: food is also delivered. The majority of deliveries by mule is food, according to Piazza as a lot of people live approximately 45 minutes away from the nearest town. The U.S. Postal Service has a lot of dedication to their deliveries. [Read More]

The History and Evolution of Majorette Dancing

by Atisse Robbins, age 12

Majorettes encompass more than just dancing; they hold a significant cultural role, particularly in Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), as a tribute to Black culture.

The first majorette performance, known to history, occurred in 1968 at the Orange Blossom Classic in Florida. Alcorn State University introduced the first majorette group, the Golden Girls, composed of eight dancers. Originally, majorettes were carnival performers who skillfully manipulated their batons. Originating as Dansmarietjes, this style made its way to the American South and evolved into the HBCU tradition we recognize today.

Majorettes incorporate various dance styles like jazz, hip-hop, ballet, burlesque, kick lines, and bucking to both entertain audiences and pay homage to those who paved the way. At Alcorn State University, Junior Jakayla Loften is a member of the Golden Girls, and she credits her participation to personal growth, both as a dancer and as a woman. [Read More]

Secrets of the Ice: Archaeologists Discover Ancient Arrowhead inside a Melting Glacier

by Camila Cruz, age 15

As glaciers begin to melt, archaeologists in Scandinavia are discovering artifacts that help them learn more about the past. Recently, researchers found a well-preserved 1,500-year-old arrow, in what they believe is an ancient hunting ground.

The archaeologists who discovered the arrow are part of “Secrets Of The Ice”, a group of scientists and glacial archaeologists in Norway who explore and pinpoint glaciers. This arrow is not just any arrow. Not only is it believed to be older than the Vikings that inhabited the land from roughly 800-1100 AD, but it is also extremely well preserved.

The arrow was found between two rocks in Norway in an area where ancient people likely hunted reindeer. The archeologists think that the arrow was lost in the snow when one of the hunters missed a shot. Archaeologists believe the arrow was frozen into a glacier, and when the glacier melted it made its way down to where it was found. The fletching which helps stabilize the arrow while it’s flying is gone, but the arrowhead is still attached to the shaft, which is a unique discovery. [Read More]

The Dead Sea's Lifelessness, Ancient Wealth, and Healing Wonders

by Kevin Chen, age 15

Though the Dead Sea sounds like a scary place, the same reasons this body of water can not support plant or animal life made it a valuable resource in the ancient world. Back in the Roman era (476 C.E.), salt was considered highly valuable, so much so that Roman soldiers would be paid in salt, instead of money. The Latin word “salary” came from the word “salt”.

The Dead Sea, actually a lake, has had different names throughout history such as the Salt Sea and the Sea of the Plain. It is one of the four saltiest bodies of water in the whole world, containing up to 10 times as many minerals and salts as most oceans. Due to its high salinity, there are not any plants or animals that inhabit the Dead Sea. This excessive amount of salt and mineral concentration is because of the warm climate which causes water to evaporate. This drastically reduces the water-to-salt ratio in the lake. The lake is so salty that people can float on it.

The Dead Sea has also been known to have healing powers. The salt and minerals in the lake can be beneficial for skin diseases. The oxygen rate is 5% higher than most places on Earth, which can also help those with asthma and arthritis. The black mud found around the Dead Sea was once used as soap in ancient Greece because it could penetrate pores and nourish the skin. Now, multiple hotels around the Dead Sea provide an opportunity to try the benefits of the world’s first health resort. [Read More]

The History of Pringles Chips

by Moore Vang, age 14

In the 1950s, the company Procter & Gamble wanted to design a chip that

did not break, had flavor and had a new shape. After nearly a century, Pringles has generated popularity around the world and is one of the best chips out there.

A chemist named Fredric Baur created the design of the Pringle, which was [Read More]

Lake Chad: A Vital Ecosystem and Historic Hub of Civilization

by Dayanis Torres-Cruz, age 13

Lake Chad is made up of 17,000 square kilometers of fresh water located at the midpoint of dunes that stretch across Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon. Lake Chad has a rich history, but scientists say that the lake's water level changes based on rain and dry seasons, and its habitat surroundings are changing.

The ecosystem in Lake Chad has a variety of open waters, some permanent and others temporary. These bodies of water contain helpful nutrients that sustain the biodiversity in the lake. Many animals, such as hippopotamuses, Nile crocodiles, tortoises, sea turtles, otters, a few native birds, migratory birds, and about 120 types of fish all call Lake Chad home.

Historically, Lake Chad was settled around 500 BC at the earliest. The ancient Sao civilization had a deep history and connection to Lake Chad. Their history traces back to the Paleolithic age and it is believed that the Sao civilization came to Lake Chad from the Nile valley around the fifth century. The Sao civilization, one of the oldest known, left remains of architecture, showing that they lived by fishing and farming, and were very creative people. [Read More]

What was Life Like in the Ice Age?

by Kaleab Afeworki, age 11

The Ice Age was a cold time period where wooly mammoths roamed free, sea levels were at bay, and isthmuses served as a natural means of transportation.

Historically, there have been five major Ice Ages, with the first dating 2.3 billion years ago. During the first Ice Age, a huge layer of ice that was more than 650 feet thick encoated one-third of the Earth. Today, leftover ice still covers Greenland and Antarctica.

The book World History Encyclopedia states, “Since the Quaternary Ice Age, there have been 17 glacial (cold) and 17 interglacial (warm) periods.” Ice Ages start from the Earth changing its direction in its path as it orbits the Sun. The first Ice Age was called the Huronian Glaciation. Right now, we are living in the Holocene, a geological time period that began 11,700 years ago after the most recent major Ice Age. [Read More]

120-Million-Year-Old Dinosaur Fossil Sheds Light on Bird Evolution

by Dayanara Flores Gonzalez, 15

Scientists have just discovered a 120-million-year-old fossil that could help us learn more about landbound dinosaurs and their evolution into flying birds.

The Cratonavis Zhui bird was revealed to have a dinosaur-like head and a body similar to that of today's birds.

This bird originated from the northeast region of China. CT scans found its skull to be nearly identical to that of a theropod dinosaur, similar to the Tyrannosaurus Rex. The Chinese Academy of Sciences reports that the Cratonavis skull had not evolved its mobile upper jaw like other birds. [Read More]

Milwaukeean becomes first Black woman mathematician to have her papers in Library of Congress manuscript collection

by Hanna Eyobed, age 17

Gloria Ford Gilmer was an expert at ethnomathematics: how math manifests itself into the lives of cultures all around the world. She was a Black woman who dedicated her life to math: both the learning and teaching of it.

Gilmer received many of her accolades after her passing in August 2021. A historian of science and technology at the Library of Congress’ Manuscript Division, Josh Levy, reached out to Gilmer's family to uncover work that had been stored away. Gilmer left a legacy of success and transcending the odds; her files, documents, photographs, and VHS tapes were held in 64 bankers boxes and are now maintained in the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress, an honor that has not been held by a Black woman before her. Her work is now able to be examined and used for further research for other historians to explore for educational purposes.

Gilmer paved the way for Black intellectuals to follow. With her concentration in ethnomathematics, Gilmer taught all over Milwaukee, including the Milwaukee Area Technical College, the University of Wisconsin- Milwaukee, and various Milwaukee public schools. She was the first Black educator in many of the spaces she entered. There were many firsts in Gilmer's career, such as first Black person to earn a doctorate from Marquette University, first Black woman to sit on the Board of Governors for the Mathematical Association of America, and first Black woman to have her papers kept in the Library of Congress’ Manuscript Division. [Read More]

The African Kingdom of Kush Lasted Almost 2,000 Years

by Anissa Attidekou, age 13

In Africa's vast and storied history, the Kingdom of Kush is a shining example of the continent’s rich and diverse civilizations. The kingdom was established in what is present-day Sudan. Kush thrived from 800 BCE to 300 AD for over a thousand years. The kingdom of Kush rose to become a formidable power in Northeast Africa, leaving an indelible mark on the region’s history.

The Kush developed a distinct culture that was influenced by Egypt and Rome. Two of its major cities are located in the White and Blue Nile. Pharaohs were drawn to the kingdom's resources and launched their military to capture them. The Kush people worshiped similar gods and practiced identical rituals such as mummification and pyramid-building. Egypt was eventually weakened by outside invaders and Kush became independent around 1,800 BC.

Kush’s prosperity was deeply rooted in its control of trade routes. Its position allowed it to be a trading link between the civilizations of the Mediterranean and those of sub-Saharan Africa. This trade brought wealth and cultural exchange that developed the kingdom. [Read More]

Remembering Toni Morrison, USPS to Honor Renowned Novelist with Commemorative Stamp

by Riya Adhikari, age 11

Toni Morrison was a famous novelist who wrote non-fiction books about African Americans. She passed away on August 5th, 2019 at the age of 88 years old.

The United States Postal Service (USPS) is designing a stamp in honor of Toni Morrison. She wrote about the struggles of being an African American in the United States and created a voice for many people.

Toni Morrison's writing was beautifully created and artistically worded. Some of her most famous novels are “Beloved,” “The Bluest Eye,” and “Song of Solomon.” After writing some of her best work, she taught literature and writing at Princeton University for 17 years. [Read More]