The U.S. Military Once Lost Four Nuclear Bombs over Spain

by John Agbo, age 15

The 1966 Palomares incident was the result of a devastating collision between a US bomber and a tanker, above the small village of Palomares, Spain on January 17, 1966. The incident killed seven soldiers and scattered four thermonuclear bombs across the Mediterranean sea coastline.

One of the bombs landed in the Mediterranean and the others crashed on the ground elsewhere. Two of them detonated, but they were conventional explosions, not nuclear ones. The explosions created a vast crater, and dispersed plutonium into the wind.

Once the news reached the U.S. military, they initiated a huge operation to find the bombs. US Air Force lawyer, Capt. Joe Ramirez, says, “There were a lot of people talking, there was a lot of excitement in the conference room. Everyone kept talking about a 'broken arrow'. I learned then that 'broken arrow' was the code word for a nuclear accident.” When Ramirez arrived at the scene with military personnel, the villagers said it was a terrifying explosion, but luckily none were harmed. [Read More]

When Margarine Was Pink: The Minnesota Margarine War

by Ruben Becerril, age 14

On July 2, 1975, Minnesota and North Dakota were the last states to lift margarine taxes. This marked the end of the state’s 90-year war against the sale of margarine. But what exactly was the Minnesota Margarine War?

Margarine was invented in 1867 and arrived in the U.S. during the 1870s, as a cheaper alternative to butter. It conveniently arrived during the country’s shift from an agricultural economy to an industrial economy. While it gained popularity quickly and got patented in 1873, it was immediately disliked by farmers because it was cheaper than butter. Margarine was also often sold as real “butter” when it first came to America, making farmers find it fraudulent and deceptive. This led to mass amounts of lobbying from dairy organizations throughout the U.S. to draft anti-margarine laws. [Read More]

126 Years Ago, George Edwin Taylor Was America's First Black Presidential Candidate

by Niko Sayu, age 11

La Crosse author Darell Ferguson asked his city's K-12 students to name the first black presidential candidate. Most guessed Barack Obama, Jesse Jackson, or even Shirley Chisholm, but they were all wrong. George Edwin Taylor was born in Little Rock, Arkansas, and grew up in La Crosse, Wisconsin. He was the first African-American to run for president 126 years ago.

Ferguson recently released a children's book titled “A Long Way to Find Home: George Edwin Taylor as a Child.” It details Taylor’s childhood, his political life, and his teenage years. Taylor was born on Aug 4, 1857. His mother was a free woman named Amanda Hines. His father was an enslaved man named Bryant Nathan Taylor. George was born two years before the passing of a law by Arkansas lawmakers forcing all free Black people out of the state. He and his mother moved to the town of Alton, Illinois, where they would live for three years until the tuberculosis-related death of his mother when he was five years old. Taylor spent the next several years of his life alone.

At the age of eight, he stowed away on a steamboat known as the Hawkeye State Express, spending several years in La Crosse with multiple foster families. At the age of 12, he was arrested and sent to live with Nathan Smith, a farmer and a former enslaved man. Ferguson describes Taylor’s life with Smith in his book. In an interview, he said, “Nathan was the one that George got to see had that involvement in the labor movement, in making sure farmers got equal rights”. [Read More]

Was the Trojan War Myth, Legend, or History?

by Ruben Becerril, age 13

Troy was an ancient city as well as an important modern day archaeological site in Turkiyé. It is famous for being the setting of Homer’s poems the “Iliad”and the “Odyssey.”

Troy, in legend, was besieged by the Greeks because Helen, a queen from Sparta was kidnapped by Paris, the son of Troy’s king, Priam. In the “Iliad” the war took place around 1200 B.C. During this time, a Greek civilization the Mycenaean, was collapsing. Their king Agamemnon, led the Greek forces.

The “Iliad” is set in the final year of fighting over a span of a few weeks. The story shows how the war at this point had practically become a stalemate. The Greeks were unable to take the city and the Trojans were also unable to push the invaders out. While many believe the “Iliad” ends with the destruction of Troy, it actually ends with a temporary truce with fighting continuing after the poem ends. The “Odyssey,” mentions how the Greeks defeated the Trojans using the “Trojan Horse,” a fake gift filled with their invaders who ambushed the city. The Greek army ended the war by destroying the city. [Read More]

The Fight for Racial Equality in the 20th Century Started with the Niagara Movement

by Ruben Becerril, age 13

In 1905, 28 prominent Black intellectuals led by W.E.B. Du Bois met in Fort Erie, Ontario near Niagara Falls, to form an assertive approach to the civil rights movement.

The Niagara Movement was a radical civil rights organization that demanded immediate and full political civil rights for African Americans. One of the primary reasons for the formation of this organization was opposing Booker T. Washington, a prominent Black civil rights advocate. He argued that African Americans should advance themselves through learning skills such as farming and carpentry. In 1895, Washington made a speech known as the Atlanta Compromise, in which he argued that African Americans should temporarily refrain from demanding full political and social equality. He stated, “Living separately, yet working together, both races will determine the future of our beloved South.”

During this time, the promises of the 14th and 15th Amendments had fallen short. Reconstruction ended, and the promise of 40 acres and a mule was unfulfilled. The Supreme Court also effectively made Jim Crow laws protected by the Constitution in Plessy v. Ferguson. [Read More]

Hannibal Barca: The Carthaginian General who Terrorized the Roman Republic

by Ruben Becerril, age 13

Hannibal Barca was a Carthaginian general known for fighting against Rome in the Second Punic War. He is considered one of the greatest generals, as well as the first general to cross the Alps with a full army.

Hannibal was born in 247 B.C.E and died around 183 B.C.E. Son of the legendary Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca, he was taken to Spain by his father at a young age. At the Temple of Baal, his father made him swear eternal hostility to Rome. Throughout his life, Hannibal faced constant struggle against the Roman Republic.

Hannibal’s first commands in the military came from General Hasdrubal the Fair, his brother-in-law and the successor to Hamilcar. Hannibal was such a successful officer that when Hasdrubal was assassinated, the government had Hannibal take his place. [Read More]

History of Rome

by Thea Kaufman, age 10

Although Rome left behind many important legacies, their capabilities at warfare were quite impactful.

Rome was founded in 735 B.C. by twin brothers named Romulus and Remus. They were said to be the God of War, and the Sons of Mars. Legend says, they were left in the Tiber River, then found and raised by a she-wolf. When they grew older, they built a city together, unfortunately Romulus killed Remus in a fight and became king. Later on, the city was named after Romulus.

Rome expanded quickly, which led to many wars, most notably, the Punic Wars. The country fought against Carthage, a city inside of Northern Africa. In the final war, Rome defeated Carthage and acquired the land. Rome separately gained control of Greece and other lands in Europe and Asia. Through this, the Romans learned about Greek culture, which influenced their own culture. [Read More]

Understanding the First Amendment: The Foundation of American Rights

by Will DeFour, age 14

The First Amendment is one of the barriers between American society as it is today, and a more authoritarian government similar to those that lock up journalists, set curfews, and prevent citizens from speaking out against their leaders.

Freedom of speech tops the Bill of Rights, which is a document containing ten amendments with similar freedoms, such as the right to a speedy trial, no cruel or unusual punishment, and the right to keep and bear arms. They were amendments to the Constitution of the United States, a document detailing how the government can write laws, declare wars, and the checks and balances within it.

The First Amendment protects many forms of expression. These five freedoms are freedom of speech, the right to practice–or not to practice–any religion, the ability of the people to write petitions to the government to incite change, freedom of the press, and the right to assemble in a nonviolent manner. [Read More]

Sacagawea Helped Shape American History Through Exploration and Survival

by Ian Kosharek, age 13

Sacagawea, meaning "boat launcher," is known for traveling thousands of miles with Lewis and Clark on their expedition. She was born into the Shoshone tribe in 1790 in what is now Idaho. As a child, she was abducted by the Hidatsa tribe and then sold into slavery at a young age to the Mandan Sioux.

Sacagawea ended up with Canadian trapper Toussaint Charbonneau. When Sacagawea was 15, the two got married and had a son named Jean Baptiste. Later on, Charbonneau was hired as an interpreter and guide for the Lewis and Clark expedition.

In 1803, the Louisiana Purchase was made by President Thomas Jefferson, which brought Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota into the U.S. This purchase nearly doubled the size of the country. The U.S. Government needed to know the boundaries of this land, so they hired Lewis, who then hired Clark. These two men then hired Charbonneau as he offered to help. [Read More]

Britannic Served as a Hospital Ship Before Its Tragic Sinking

by Leo Wilson, age 12

The Britannic, originally called the Gigantic, was a ship made by the White Star Line, the same company that made the infamous Titanic. The ship was built in 1914 in the Harland and Wolff shipyard, located in Belfast, England. It was originally going to be an ocean liner, but the British government required it to be turned into a hospital ship due to the start of World War I.

The HMHS (His Majesty’s Hospital Ship) Britannic had many rooms that the crew used to house soldiers. After the Titanic disaster on April 15th, 1912, the White Star Line (passenger liner corporation) was taking no chances with the Britannic, so they increased their watertight compartments to 17 and added many lifeboats.

The Britannic had many differences from its sister ships, the Titanic and the Olympic. The most notable is how the Britannic was turned into a hospital ship. Another difference is that the Britannic sank due to an underwater mine and had six voyages, unlike its sister ship, the Titanic, which tragically made only one voyage. The Britannics' last stop was in Queenstown, Ireland. [Read More]

How the She-She-She Camps Gave Hope to Women in the Great Depression

by Camila Cruz, age 16

During the 1930s, thousands of men and women were laid off due to the stock market crash of 1929. The whole country was suffering during the Great Depression, but women were especially overlooked.

Due to the high numbers of unemployed Americans, one of the first priorities of President Franklin Roosevelt after his inauguration in 1933 was to create the Civilian Conservation Corps, or CCC, a program that employed over three million men. The program gave hope and jobs to many, but women were still left jobless and poor since the CCC was only open to men, even though women made up about a quarter of the workforce.

As letters poured in from women asking for help, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt wondered what she could do. Seeing how the CCC was changing lives, she helped launch a smaller initiative for women called the “She-She-She Camps.” Officially named the “Emergency Conservation Work for Women,” these camps provided unemployed women with shelter, food, and training. Many critics mockingly referred to them as “She-She-She Camps.” [Read More]

New Research Shows Ancient Clovis Hunters Were “Megafaunal Specialists”

by Elim Eyobed, age 14

Imagine stalking mammoths across frozen tundras. This is how the Clovis people survived the Ice Age, hunting mammoths, bison, and other animals to thrive in a harsh, frozen world.

The Clovis people originated in Siberia and crossed the Bering Land Bridge to the Americas during the last Ice Age. Clovis is a term used to represent a whole culture known primarily for their stone tools, one of which was a weapon called the Clovis Point. This culture hunted large animals such as mammoths, but they also consumed other creatures such as bison and small animals. Research shows that they had an average of 12,800 calories per day, consisting of 21% bison and 79% mammoths and other small to medium animals.

Researchers from McMaster University in Canada and the University of Alaska Fairbanks have been trying to figure out who the Clovis people were and learn more about their culture to see how humans influenced the extinction of large mammals during the Ice Age. The researchers found that the tools they used had a large influence on their lives. Specifically, these tools determined their diet via limitations in the size, species, and quantity of the animals they could hunt based on their weapons. [Read More]

History of Writing and How It Changed the World

by Marco Flores, age 10

Writing and printing have been around for thousands of years, but where did it all begin?

For much of history, the alphabet as we know it today didn’t exist. Ancient Egyptians used pictures and symbols, like animals and body parts, to write words. These symbols are called hieroglyphics. For example, to spell a word like “mental,” Egyptians might use a game board, a loaf of bread, a vulture, and a lion. These stand for the sounds “men,” “t,” “a,” and “l.”

Books, as we know them today, didn’t appear until the invention of printing. Before the printing press, books were handmade by people known as scribes, who carefully copied documents by hand. The earliest known printed book is titled The Diamond Sutra, made in China in the year 868 CE using a woodblock printing method. Scribes sometimes added images to these books by carving blocks, inking them, and pressing them onto pages. [Read More]

Learn the History Behind the Black Hawk War

By Max Moreno, age 12

The Black Hawk War started on April 6, 1832, and was the result of a misunderstanding that led to a massacre, killing thousands of Native American men, women, and children.

In 1804, future president William Henry Harrison and two representatives of the Sauk Nation signed a treaty that sold all the Sauk land east of the Mississippi for $2,500, which, even then, was not a fair deal. Sauk chiefs in Illinois and Wisconsin never got to speak for the nation so they thought the treaty was invalid. Therefore, they continued to live in their village of Saukenuk near the Rock River in western Illinois. [Read More]

How the Nile River’s Changing Waters Affect Life in Africa

by Sofia Zapata, age 14

The Nile River, one of the longest rivers in the world, is an important transportation and trade route, but in recent years it has faced new problems.

The river flows around 6,600 kilometers and empties into the Mediterranean Sea. It flows from south to north through eastern Africa, starting from rivers that flow into Lake Victoria. The Nile River runs either along the border or through ten African countries. The river also has provided a source of irrigation to help transform dry areas around it into lush, agricultural land. [Read More]

What is the United States Constitution?

by Jules Da Costa, age 16

The United States Constitution is a document that outlines the structure of the U.S. government and the values of the nation. Furthermore, the first three words of this document – “We The People” – emphasize a core value of serving citizens and asserting the powers of the government.

The Constitution was drafted in 1787 by delegates from the original 13 states, including James Madison, Hamilton, and John Jay. It replaced the Articles of Confederation, which were essentially America’s first constitution. The Articles of Confederation were outdated and didn’t give enforcement powers to the government. Due to this, Alexander Hamilton called a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation, however, they ended up deciding to redesign the government.

The Constitution has a preamble, or introduction, and seven articles that describe how the government works. The first three articles establish the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government and what they do. The articles do not allow any one branch to be too powerful, and so a system of checks and balances is implemented. Articles four through seven explain how the states interact with the federal government, establish the Constitution as “the supreme law of the land,” and outline how the amendment and ratification processes work. [Read More]

Marie Curie Was a Trailblazer in Science and Radioactivity

by Siwoo Park, age 12

Marie Curie, one of the world’s beloved scientists, was a pioneer in the study of radioactivity and her discoveries revolutionized cancer treatment. Through her discovery of radium, she became the first woman to win a Nobel Prize in two different fields, and eight years later won a subsequent prize.

Marie was born Marya Sklodowska on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw, Poland. She earned good grades and was even awarded a gold medal in her high school. Despite being a great student and her family valued education, she could not attend university because Russia had invaded Poland and women were not able to go to college after the invasion. Marya made money by giving private tutoring lessons and became involved with a group of young people who taught themselves their topics, called the “Floating University.” She became a governess to a wealthy family, but she craved knowledge and became more determined than ever to attend university. [Read More]

The Sad Story of Japanese-American Internment During World War II

by Kelly Vazquez, age 18

Anti-Asian sentiments have been around for some time now, but with COVID-19, Asian hate has risen all across the globe. However, this is not the first time Asian groups have faced discrimination. A prime example is the aftermath of the Pearl Harbor attacks in 1941, when the Japanese military attacked the US Naval base by surprise, killing 2,403 service members, seriously injuring 1,178 others, and destroying about 170 planes and multiple ships.

The response from President Franklin Roosevelt was Executive Order 9066, which established Japanese internment camps from 1942 to 1954 during World War II. This policy —now known as one of the worst American civil rights violations — stripped the civil rights of people of Japanese descent, including U.S. citizens, and forced them into isolated camps. [Read More]

Extinction of The Largest Known Primate Ever to Live

by Theodore Morrison, age 16

Imagine as a species, being so big and unmaneuverable, that it starves to death. That was the probable reality for the Gigantopithecus Blacki who were massive beasts that dominated southeast Asia during the latest Ice Age.

The species were herbivores and ten feet tall while weighing more than 500 pounds. The Gigantopithecus Blacki existed in what was ancient China between 2.3 million years ago and 215,000 years ago. They originally favored dense forests as their natural habitat before evidence points to a transition relatively 700,000 years ago to a more open space such as grassland. These apes were specialized to these dense forests, and when they transitioned to a much different environment, they felt the effects. [Read More]

The Last Voyage of the SS Phoenix

by Kelly Vazquez, age 17

On November 11th, 1847, the steamboat S.S. Phoenix, was sailing across Lake Michigan. It carried an estimated 293 passengers, many of whom were immigrants from the Netherlands. However, many of these passengers would never go on to see their destination.

Around 4:00 am on November 21st, smoke began to escape the ship's engine room as the boilers overheated and set overhead wooden beams on fire. When the crewmen discovered the fire, the Phoenix was within seven miles of the town of Sheboygan.

Although at first, the crew managed to contain the flames, the fire raged out of control shortly after. The ship's passengers were alerted and First Mate Watts organized the crew and passengers into a bucket brigade (passing buckets of water down a line of people) in an attempt to fight the fire. The fire continued to grow. Watts ordered the ship to turn towards the shore, but the fire overwhelmed the engine room and the ship drifted until it stopped about five miles from shore and nine miles from Sheboygan. [Read More]

Rosa Parks, Civil Rights Icon

by Sol-Saray, age 11

Many people may have heard of the brave woman who stood up for herself and refused to give up her seat to a white man. That woman was known as Rosa Parks.

Rosa Louise McCauley was born in Tuskegee, Alabama on February 4, 1913. She was daughter of James McCauley, who worked as a carpenter, and Leona McCauley, who worked as a teacher. Rosa's grandparents were enslaved. Rosa grew up in times where racism and segregation was very harsh; due to Jim Crow laws in the South, Black Americans had to sit separately on the bus from white Americans.

On December 1, 1955, she boarded the bus after a long day of work. She chose to sit in the front of the bus, spots typically designated for white people. When demanded to give her seat to a white passenger, she refused and was arrested and fined shortly after. As a result of her arrest, people started boycotting the Montgomery buses in protest by walking instead of using bus transportation. The boycott lasted over a year and resulted in the U.S Supreme Court ruling in favor of ending racial segregation on buses. [Read More]

East L.A. Student Walkouts Propelled the Chicano Movement

by Valeria Moreno Lopez, age 16

The 1960s was a time of change for many underrepresented communities in the United States. Between the civil rights movement and racial conflicts occurring, many people took the opportunity to strongly voice their basic needs. An example is the East L.A. walkouts of 1968, a series of protests led by Chicano students that advocated for the improvement of their education.

Obvious flaws in the Los Angeles school systems were always apparent to Chicano students. The unfurnished buildings could not support the growing population, hence leading to overcrowding; and much of the staff were inadequately trained for teaching. The lack of education quality denied many academic and career opportunities for Latinos that were readily available to white students. Nearly 130,000 Latinos made up 75 percent of East L.A.'s student body, but due to the lack of support, the number of school drop-outs mounted to 50 percent or above. Although Chicano students contacted their school administrations to fix the flaws, nothing changed.

Students, however, were not alone in the fight against the discriminatory issues they faced. In particular, Sal Castro, a Mexican-American social studies teacher at Lincoln High School in Los Angeles, encouraged Chicano students to dwell more on their culture and take pride in their identity. In 1967, Castro, and community members, began organizing protests and helping students walk out of their classes to march in the streets. Many Chicanos from East L.A. schools and concerned parents joined. Together they created a list of 39 demands, such as employing more Latino staff, allowing bilingualism to be used in classrooms, and an increase of Mexican and Mexican-American history lessons. [Read More]

Women Pioneers in the STEM Fields

by Devika Pal, age 17

As early as the mid-19th century, women made vast contributions to astronomy. They had to fight for representation and recognition in this field. Pioneers such as Maria Mitchell and a group of women known as the Harvard Computers paved the way for the women who followed. However, even now, many women struggle to receive credit for their work.

Maria Mitchell is recognized as the first professional woman astronomer in the United States. She discovered a comet in 1847 using a small telescope, which was later named after her, Miss Mitchell’s Comet. The discovery was initially credited to Italian astronomer Francesco de Vico even though he discovered it after she did; it was not until later that it was credited to Mitchell. The first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Joseph Henry, even published the comet’s discovery in 1848 without mention of Mitchell’s name. His actions reflect the refusal to credit women astronomers for their achievements, a common tendency at that time. Despite being initially overlooked, she was admitted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1848, becoming the first woman to be recognized by the Academy.

During the early 20th century, Harvard Observatory Director Edward Charles Pickering put together a team of women astronomers who came to be known as the “Harvard Computers.” These women carried out astronomical calculations and invented the Harvard spectral classification, which they used to classify hundreds of stars. Over a century later, this system is still being used by modern astronomers. However, the women worked in substandard conditions, only earning 25 to 50 cents an hour, much less than the men made, while performing a similar wide range of duties. Even Annie Jump Cannon—who was central to development of the Havard classification system—was not credited by name in the title. [Read More]

The Ancient Library of Pergamum

by Hiba Al-Quraishi, age 14

The ancient library of Pergamum, located in what is now Turkey, was built in the third century B.C. by members of the Attalid dynasty. The library, constructed by a small kingdom that lasted only 150 years, is now one of the most famous libraries in antiquity.

Following the destruction of Alexander the Great’s empire, Lysimachus, a general in Alexander the Great’s army, founded the Monarchy of Pergamum or Attalid kingdom during the Hellenistic period. This kingdom was situated in what is now Turkey, in the western portion of Asia Minor.

Around 130 BC, the Roman Republic acquired the Kingdom of Pergamum. Even though this kingdom only existed for roughly 150 years, they managed to construct one of the greatest libraries ever seen in antiquity and for centuries. The large library of Pergamum remained a significant hub of study. [Read More]

How an Ancient Civilization Thrived and then Collapsed

by Emily Rodriguez, age 13

A mysterious ancient civilization on the island of Malta collapsed within two generations, despite surviving for more than a millennium.

The ancient civilization was known as the Temple Culture, it arose around 6,000 years ago on Malta and other islands in the Mediterranean sea. Groups of scientists analyzed pollen and DNA from skulls and bones that were buried deep in the Earth to find an explanation for the quick collapse. According to a tree ring analysis, the whole region was exposed to horrible climates. This analysis and other research makes up an ongoing investigation into why the civilization collapsed. [Read More]

Cathedral on a Hill: Ancient Structure in Turkey Might be the Oldest on Planet Earth

by Jules Da Costa, age 13

Have you ever wondered what the world’s oldest structure is? Well, archaeologists have found an answer: Gobekli Tepe.

The Gobekli Tepe, informally known as “Cathedral on a Hill,” is located east of the Mediterranean Sea in the country of Turkey. It was discovered atop a limestone plateau close to Urfa. It currently stands as humanity's oldest known structure, built over 11,000 years ago.

In 1996, German archaeologist Klaus Schmidt led an expedition on the mountaintop. After over a decade of excavations, Schmidt concluded that the monument gives further insight on when early humans switched from a nomadic lifestyle to an agricultural lifestyle. He and his team found stone tools and other promising evidence that hunter-gatherers based at the Gobekli Tepe site carved tools and built structures. [read more]

How a Library Made Baghdad the World's Most Important Center of Learning

by Mariama Bah, age 15

When hearing about grand libraries, one might think of the Library of Alexandria or the Library of Congress. However a different library was established in the 9th century as one of the world’s greatest centers of science and learning.

The House of Wisdom was founded in the city of Baghdad, Iraq during the Islamic Golden Age, which lasted from the 8th to the 14th century. The Islamic Golden Age was an important period in Islamic history characterized by a series of rapid scientific, cultural, and economic advancements. [Read More]

Bussa’s Rebellion in 1816 Helped Bring About the Abolition of Slavery

by Amelia Pearson, age 13

Bussa was an African-born slave who worked at Bayley Plantation in St. Philip on the island of Barbados, which at the time was an English colony. The British Parliament passed a law to end slavery in 1807 but slaves later realized they might never gain freedom.

Bussa was a head officer among the slaves and managed boundaries and fences. He also had to deal with day-to-day business between the estates. Due to this factor, he could move throughout the estate and gain a good understanding of the area. He had the respect of many slaves, plantation owners, and workers.

Bussa planned one of the first major uprisings with people from other estates. The enslaved people attempted to change Barbado's society. They believed Barbados was theirs and wanted to be free from the plantation owners. Bussa led about 400 women and men during the uprising. They fought together against armed and trained troops of the colonial militia. [Read More]

When Authority Turns to Oppression: A Historical Pattern of Persecution

by: Samuel Garduño Martínez, age 16

Nations and empires around the globe have had their times of prosperity as well as times of hardship and failure. However, when minority groups become a threat to a totalitarian government or a governing body, people in power begin to reveal their malicious intentions. This is when persecution arises and people are targeted, even those just living on their land peacefully.

One example from history is the Protestant movement that arose across Europe in the 1400s. The Catholic Church, which still had an authoritarian grip on Europe, began the persecution of the growing Protestant populations. Soon, Protestant denominations, such as Lutheranism and Calvinism, were the target of persecution as their beliefs went against the structure of the Church. [Read More]

The Mexican-American War: Controversy and Consequences

by Ayelen Flores Ruiz, age 13

The Mexican-American War was controversial, but others said it was meant to occur. President James K. Polk, known for expanding territorial land of the United States, believed Americans should have power over the entire North American continent.

The war started in 1846 when Polk, who was president at that time, wanted to buy land that belonged to Mexico. Polk sent John Slidell, an American diplomat, to offer $30 million for the land. The only problem was that the Mexican government was not interested and turned down the deal. Polk became furious and sent American troops to a disputed area between the Rio Grande and the Nueces River in January 1846. Before the war began, there already was conflict on whether Texas ended at the Nueces or the Rio Grande. After sending troops, Polk tried to incite Mexico into war, and soon enough the Mexican government responded by crossing the Rio Grande and firing on American troops in April 1846. In response, Polk sent an order for war to Congress on May 11, 1846. Polk declared, “Mexico has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil." [Read More]

World War Two Battalion Awarded Congressional Gold Medal

by Mahalia Pearson, age 12

During World War II, the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion employed people of African-American, Caribbean, and Mexican descent. The women who worked in the Postal Directory Department were grouped in the Women Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) and later were called the Women Army Corps (WAC) on July 1, 1943.

Unfortunately, in 1945, multiple warehouses in England had a large backlog of mail from soldiers that had not been distributed. Before it could be sent out, the mail would take six months to process first, and there were seven million soldiers and government workers waiting for their correspondence. This issue left soldiers upset since they were not receiving their mail. The 855 Black women from the WAC were granted the opportunity to go overseas, due to the support and pressure from different African American organizations. When arrived in Europe they started sending out mail. They worked seven days a week, circling through three eight-hour shifts per day. These women delivered more than 17 million letters in the last several months of the war.

These women were slandered by male soldiers based on their race and gender. Major Charity Adams, the female African-American officer with the highest rank, led her corps through a boycott against the facilities for being segregated. The reason for the discrimination they faced was because they were Black women in a primarily white place. As a solution, they decided to create their facilities such as hair salons, food halls, and refreshment bars. [Read More]

The Silk Road Paved the Way for Cultural Exchange and Prosperity

by Daileni Cruz, age 10

The Silk Road was an ancient trade route connecting the two great civilizations of Rome and China. They would trade wool, gold, silver, and silk along this road.

In 138 BC, Zhang Qian journeyed from China to Central Asia. He is known as “The Father of the Silk Road.” His sea voyages exposed the Chinese to Greek culture. New breeds of horses, grapes, and alfalfa were brought to China because of his journeys. The trade route that people mainly used followed the Great Wall of China to the northwest and climbed the Pamir Mountains in Tajikistan, and went through Afghanistan before finishing in Rome.

Asia began to lose its Roman territory as Arabian power began to increase in the Mediterranean area. Due to their differences, the Silk Road became unsafe. The Silk Road slowly disappeared as people stopped using it for trade. Sea routes were then discovered as a safe and faster means of trade. [Read More]

Wisconsin History and the Invention of Typewriters

by Sedona Afeworki, age 15

Christopher Latham Sholes created the first practical typewriter in 1874, right here in Wisconsin.

He was born in Pennsylvania in 1819 after finishing his apprenticeship in newspapering and moved to Green Bay when he was 18 years old. There, he started working for his brothers at the Wisconsin Democrat as a publisher. Around a year later, his brothers promoted him to edit the Madison Enquirer. Sholes later moved to Kenosha and created the Southport Telegraph, which he worked on for seventeen years. He also worked in Wisconsin politics, organizing the Republican Party and Free Soil Party, which resulted in a successful campaign to outlaw the death penalty.

In the fall of 1867, Sholes created a working typewriter with the help of Matthias Schwalbach, a machinist, and Samuel Soule, an inventor. Later, he had a test race with the superintendent of the Western Union Telegraph; the superintendent was writing with his hand and Sholes using the new typewriter. In the end, Sholes was quicker in finishing the sentence. One would think it would give them more sales, yet that wasn’t the case. [Read More]

Magellan's Expedition Was the First Circumnavigation

by Ayelen Flores Ruiz, age 13

In 1519, Portugal was the first country to circumnavigate the globe. Some parts of the world could, but most were not able to circumnavigate past South America. Some parts of the world had advantages that allowed them to build ships, but other parts of the world were incapable due to the lack of resources. However, there was one person who eventually was able to circumnavigate, Ferdinand Magellan.

Becoming the first to circumnavigate the globe was not something on China’s list. Although the country was powerful and had the resources, they were more focused on protecting their people. The Barbarian invasion threat made China create better protection on its northern boundaries. Improving their protection meant rebuilding and extending the Great Wall. China’s multistoried ships were large, compared to Western ships. What stopped its people from being the first to circumnavigate the globe was the anti-marine policy that was made in the 1500s, making it a crime to build a ship with two masts or bigger, and if disobeyed would lead to death. China created this policy so none of its people could be in danger.

Apart from China, Arab Muslims wanted to be the first to circumnavigate but they faced challenges. Individual Muslims navigated the Indian Ocean for centuries which helped them master the shifting direction of the moon. Navigating the Indian Ocean made them discover that another sea, south of Africa, was linked to the Indian Ocean. The Arabian Peninsula could not produce wood, resin, iron, and textiles which were the essentials to building a ship. Not having these products gave them the defeat they did not want. Arab Muslims, not having the supplies needed, gave Spaniards an advantage. [Read More]

The Ongoing Mystery of the Loch Ness Monster

by Will DeFour, age 13

Many urban legends have endured through the ages, whether it be monsters such as Bigfoot, Mothman, or the Yeti. However, while almost everyone has heard of these characters, their existence is debated. One of the oldest is the Loch Ness Monster, also known as Nessie.

The Loch Ness Monster's first recorded sighting was by an Irish Monk named Saint Columbia. According to legend, he banished the beast to the loch, a large body of water in Scotland, and the creature still lives there today. In 1933, the monster was sighted again and its most iconic photograph was taken.

Naturally, such a beast would inspire searches. Many investigations of the monster have occurred over the years. Though the task may sound easy, the loch is the largest body of water in Scotland at over 20 miles long and 750 feet deep. However, this summer, investigators conducted the largest search since 1972, with equipment that was far more advanced such as thermal drones. The search did not produce any evidence of the beast. However, there were reports of a dark shadow and strange previously undetected noises from the loch. The beast in question, unfortunately, was not sighted. [Read More]

The Tuskegee Airmen Broke Racial Barriers and Combat Records in World War Two

by Max Moreno, age 11

Some of the many unspoken heroes of American history during World War II are the Tuskegee Airmen, the first Black American pilots in the military.

Before the Tuskegee Airmen, Black Americans were not allowed in the Air Force due to racist Jim Crow laws that enforced segregation. But during WWII the U.S. needed pilots.

Even though the Civilian Pilot Training Program started training Black Americans in the 1930s, there were debates among leaders outside of the military regarding Black Americans serving in the Air Force. But the NAACP and other organizations fought for inclusion. [Read More]

Exploring the Award-Winning Restoration of the 1868 Brisbane House in Arena, Wisconsin

by Ayelen Flores Ruiz, age 13

The historic Brisbane House in Arena, Wisconsin, is renowned for its builder's past. William Henry Brisbane, known as an "abolitionist," faced significant scrutiny when he embraced this cause and subsequently relocated from his Southern home state.

Born on October 12, 1806, Brisbane began his journey as a cadet at the Norwich Military Academy in Norwich, Vermont. He later inherited 33 enslaved individuals from his family. While residing in a South Carolina house with his slaves, Brisbane underwent a transformation in his beliefs, recognizing the inherent wrongfulness of slavery. He made the courageous decision to set his slaves free, a move that garnered heavy criticism and disdain from his community. Nonetheless, this opposition did not deter him from persisting in his human rights campaign. To escape judgment and pursue his cause, Brisbane left South Carolina and settled in what is now Arena, Wisconsin, embarking on a new chapter in his life.

Brisbane harbored grand plans to construct a house where he could reside and eventually provide accommodation for others after his passing. The house was built in the "I-style," a design Southerners transported with them when they migrated North. Characterized by its towering structure and an interior adorned with numerous large windows that facilitated excellent ventilation in the summer, the house also featured tall doors. Remarkably, the house still stands in good condition. [Read More]

Beneath the Pacific Ocean: Explorers Find Japanese Ship Sunk During World War Two

by Sedona Afeworki, age 14

On April 18, 2023, a Japanese shipwreck was located in the South China Sea. This was Australia’s largest death at sea during World War II.

This scary story begins with the ship: Montevideo Maru, which was carrying both prisoners and civilians that were taken during the Battle of Rabaul in Papua New Guinea. The Sturgeon, an American submarine shot four torpedoes after watching the ship all night on July 1, 1942. It took less than 10 minutes to sink.

That night, 1,080 lives were taken. Those people were from 14 different nations. More than 90% of the people who died were Australian. Family members waited years for letters from their missing family members on board, only to find out that their loved ones had drowned. [Read More]

From Modest Chateau to Palace Fit for Kings

by Ashley Mercado, age 14

King Louis XII originally chose Versailles, an area just outside of Paris, as the site for a modest hunting chateau. However, over the years it developed into something far more elegant. [Read More]

Ghost Towns and Glaciers: The Legend of Kennicot

by Anissa Attidekou, age 13

Despite the fact that ghost stories can be scary, they are always interesting. The tale of this ghostly Alaskan glacier might give you a chill, but it will also get you hooked with its unique story.

This ghostly glacier was discovered and explored during the 1800s and site was eventually named the Kennicott Glacier. The mountains around the glacier are embedded with tons of copper. During the 1800s and 1900s, the rise of electricity and telephone use meant an increase in demand for copper wiring. After finding out about the Kennicott Glacier and its copper, several companies quickly built mines.

At its peak, these mining operations employed around 600 miners. They worked long hours every day. The miners produced a lot of copper allowing the owners of the mines to make a great amount of money. [Read More]

Exploring the Family Life of the Aztecs

by Marco Gonzalez, age 9

In Mesoamerica, Aztec culture had many interesting practices and beliefs. Their family life was especially important, even though some of its characteristics might seem strange today.

The Mesoamerican culture considered it important for married couples to have kids. Aztec parents would have big celebrations that would last over a day when their baby was born. They would also wait to name their newborns until the celebration. During labor, women were helped by neighbors and other local women since they had no midwives. After giving birth, the mother would wash herself and her newborn in the river or the closet body of water, and the umbilical cord was kept in the house.

The Mesoamerican male's responsibilities included supporting his family and his government through his hard work and paying taxes. Young women were taught to do chores such as weaving and cooking while young men often followed their fathers while they worked. One of the main roles of an Aztec female was to raise children until they were ready to leave the home and marry. [Read More]

The Unique History of Lake Ivanhoe, Wisconsin

by Josepha Da Costa, age 18

This past summer, Lake Ivanhoe was one of 40 new historical markers to be designated in Wisconsin. It became only the 8th marker, out of 600, in the state to feature Black History. Peter Baker, a current resident who grew up in Lake Ivanhoe, “the safest place and the coolest place” he’d ever been in his life, played an important part in the process of celebrating this history. His tireless efforts for over 20 years finally made this commemoration possible.

Lake Ivanhoe was founded in 1926, in the town of Bloomfield, by three Black men from Chicago: politician Bradford Watson, business executive Frank Anglin, and attorney Jeremiah Brumfield. These men were looking for a summer vacation place to visit with their families to get away from the racial unrest in Chicago at the time, which was a result of the Great Migration. As Black people started frequently moving to the northern cities, specifically Chicago, segregation became increasingly prominent. Since Black people were not welcome in predominantly white resorts in neighboring places like Lake Geneva, they decided to create their own. This was where the first entirely Black owned community in Wisconsin was born. [Read More]